nativism (n.) A sociopolitical policy, especially in the United States in the 19th century, favoring the interests of established inhabitants over those of immigrants.
nativism (n.) The reestablishment or perpetuation of native cultural traits, especially in opposition to acculturation.
nativism (n.) The doctrine that the mind produces ideas that are not derived from external sources.
A PROMINENT American once said, about immigrants, “Few of their children in the country learn English... The signs in our streets have inscriptions in both languages ... Unless the stream of their importation could be turned they will soon so outnumber us that all the advantages we have will not be able to preserve our language, and even our government will become precarious.”
This sentiment did not emerge from the rancorous debate over the immigration bill defeated last week in the Senate. It was not the lament of some guest of Lou Dobbs or a Republican candidate intent on wooing bedrock conservative votes. Guess again.
Voicing this grievance was Benjamin Franklin. And the language so vexing to him was the German spoken by new arrivals to Pennsylvania in the 1750s, a wave of immigrants whom Franklin viewed as the “most stupid of their nation.”
About the same time, a Lutheran minister named Henry Muhlenberg, himself a recent arrival from Germany, worried that “the whole country is being flooded with ordinary, extraordinary and unprecedented wickedness and crimes. ... Oh, what a fearful thing it is to have so many thousands of unruly and brazen sinners come into this free air and unfenced country.”
These German masses yearning to breathe free were not the only targets of colonial fear and loathing. Echoing the opinions of colonial editors and legislators, Ben Franklin was also troubled by the British practice of dumping its felons on America. With typical Franklin wit, he proposed sending rattlesnakes to Britain in return. (This did not, however, preclude numerous colonists from purchasing these convicts as indentured servants.)
And still earlier in Pennsylvania, the Scotch-Irish had bred discontent, as their penchant for squatting on choice real estate ran headlong against the colony’s founders, the Penn family, and their genteel notions about who should own what.
Often, the disdain for the foreign was inflamed by religion. Boston’s Puritans hanged several Friends after a Bay Colony ban on Quakerism. In Virginia, the Anglicans arrested Baptists.
But the greatest scorn was generally reserved for Catholics — usually meaning Irish, French, Spanish and Italians. Generations of white American Protestants resented newly arriving “Papists,” and even in colonial Maryland, a supposed haven for them, Roman Catholics were nonetheless forbidden to vote and hold public office.
Once independent, the new nation began to carve its views on immigrants into law. In considering New York’s Constitution, for instance, John Jay — later to become the first chief justice of the Supreme Court — suggested erecting “a wall of brass around the country for the exclusion of Catholics.”
By 1790, with the United States Constitution firmly in place, the first federal citizenship law restricted naturalization to “free white persons” who had been in the country for two years. That requirement was later pushed back to five years and, in 1798, to 14 years.
Then, as now, politics was key. Federalists feared that too many immigrants were joining the opposition. Under the 1798 Alien Act — with the threat of war in the air over French attacks on American shipping — President John Adams had license to deport anyone he considered “dangerous.” Although his secretary of state favored mass deportations, Adams never actually put anybody on a boat.
Back then, the French warranted the most suspicion, but there were other worrisome “aliens.” A wave of “wild Irish” refugees was thought to harbor dangerous radicals. Harsh “anti-coolie” laws later singled out the Chinese. And, of course, the millions of “involuntary” immigrants from Africa and their offspring were regarded merely as persons “held to service.”
Scratch the surface of the current immigration debate and beneath the posturing lies a dirty secret. Anti-immigrant sentiment is older than America itself. Born before the nation, this abiding fear of the “huddled masses” emerged in the early republic and gathered steam into the 19th and 20th centuries, when nativist political parties, exclusionary laws and the Ku Klux Klan swept the land.
As we celebrate another Fourth of July, this picture of American intolerance clashes sharply with tidy schoolbook images of the great melting pot. Why has the land of “all men are created equal” forged countless ghettoes and intricate networks of social exclusion? Why the signs reading “No Irish Need Apply”? And why has each new generation of immigrants had to face down a rich glossary of now unmentionable epithets? Disdain for what is foreign is, sad to say, as American as apple pie, slavery and lynching.
That fence along the Mexican border now being contemplated by Congress is just the latest vestige of a venerable tradition, at least as old as John Jay’s “wall of brass.” “Don’t fence me in” might be America’s unofficial anthem of unfettered freedom, but too often the subtext is, “Fence everyone else out.”
Our current immigration debate is wrought with emotion and waged on grossly simplistic terms. It's a national argument loaded with bad faith, marked by a surplus of name calling and often based on terrible data.
The key to getting to the bottom of the immigration question is to embrace the complexity of the issue. If we take a broad look at the facts -- with all their nuance -- perhaps a common-sense solution will emerge.
A real issue
A few weeks ago Robert Scheer argued, "There is no immigration crisis -- other than the one created by a small but vocal stripe of opportunist politicians, media demagogues and freelance xenophobes."
I'll explain why he's partially right. Yet at the same time, to deny that immigration is a real issue is not only politically tone-deaf, it misses the point entirely.
The present state of our immigration system is horrible from a pro- as well as an anti-immigration point of view. Recall that on Sept. 10, 2001, when Guantanamo Bay was still just an odd relic of the Cold War, the United States was already holding over 3,000 people indefinitely in its immigration system, "pending deportation" to countries that didn't want them, without charge or access to attorneys.
It's an issue because we have more undocumented immigrants in this country than ever, and recent polls show that three out of four Americans consider immigration "a very big or moderately big problem." Many see unchecked immigration as the root cause of American workers' deteriorating economic health.
With virtually no mainstream debate about how so-called "free-trade" affects working people, how easy it is to break unions or how debased corporate America's ethical culture has become, it's not surprising that immigration is such a hot-button topic. Working people have seen their real wages and benefits falling, and although that decline doesn't match up chronologically with the influx of immigrant labor over the past 10 years, it's understandable that people believe immigration plays a much greater role than it actually does. Immigrants are visible in a way those other factors are not.
But while the high number of immigrants in the United States is an issue, it's not a crisis, and it is certainly not an invasion. What we've seen is a large but finite surge in immigration, mostly from Mexico and largely in response to the effects of trade deals Mexico signed in the 1990s. According to a study by the Pew organization, Mexican immigration "grew very rapidly starting in the mid-1990s, hit a peak at the end of the decade, and then declined substantially after 2001. By 2004, the annual inflow of foreign-born persons was down 24 percent from its all-time high in 2000."
That timeline corresponds perfectly with the damage wrought in Mexico by NAFTA. According to one of the better analyses of that deal's impact (PDF), between NAFTA's passage in 1995 and 2002, Mexico saw "a decline in domestic manufacturing employment" and "Mexican agriculture has been a net loser … [E]mployment in the sector has declined sharply." Real wages for most Mexicans today are lower than when NAFTA took effect.
According to a Pew analysis of census data, there are an estimated 12 million undocumented immigrants in the United States, up from around five million in the mid-1990s. As a percentage of the population, there are fewer foreign-born in America today than there were in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. At less than five percent, immigrants are a much lower percentage of the civilian work force than we've had in past eras.
We need a clearer understanding of who immigrants are and what they do. According to the Census Bureau (PDF), less than half of all immigrants come from Central and South America. The same percentage of the foreign-born population has college degrees as Americans (although fewer have high school degrees).
The common notion that there are "good" immigrants who enter the United States legally, pay their taxes and work hard to raise their families, and "bad," shiftless immigrants who enter illegally, take services and give nothing in return while depressing native wages is at best overly simplistic. Up to 40 percent of the illegal population entered the country legally and overstayed their visas. Illegals pay payroll, sales and property taxes (mostly passed through rental property owners), which are the three taxes that take the biggest bite from all working-class families. According to a Pew study, a quarter of all immigrants live in "mixed" households where some members are U.S. citizens, some are legal residents and some are undocumented.
Today's "bad" immigrant, if given the chance, becomes tomorrow's "good" one. Currently, the two are likely to be cousins.
The economy
"They took our jobs!" is neither accurate nor a cogent analysis of the impact immigration has on the economy.
The short version goes like this: We absolutely need a large supply of immigrant labor for our overall, long-term economic health. Immigrants have a negative short-term impact on local governments' fiscal situation, but over the long haul, immigrants pay more in taxes than they take in services. Immigrant labor has a negative effect on wages for a small group of Americans, and the positive contributions -- including their positive contributions to workers' wages -- are enjoyed by a much, much larger group of natives. All of these factors are very small in relation to the economy as a whole, and almost none of the rhetoric about how immigration hurts working people is justified by the data.
In the nineteenth century, the term "nativism" referred to white, native-born, Protestant Americans' hostility to European immigrants. Since many of those immigrants prior to the Civil War were Roman Catholics, ethnic prejudice against immigrants was usually accompanied by visceral hatred of Catholics as well. Indeed, because Americans had overtly identified themselves as a Protestant, anti-Catholic nation since the seventeenth century and because prominent Protestant clergymen had warned since the early nineteenth century of a Papal plot to subvert American liberty and seize control of the United States politically through the use of slavish Catholic immigrant minions, waves of new European immigration which spawned outbursts of nativist sentiment also provoked anti-Catholicism. Immigration from England, Ireland, and Germany — as well as Canada and other European nations — was constant throughout the nineteenth century, but it especially swelled between 1845 and 1855 as immigrants fled famine, poverty, and political turmoil in Ireland and Germany.
Nativism took a variety of forms. Middle-class and elitist gentlemen, who sniffed that socially inferior immigrants lacked the intelligence and experience to be good republican citizens, occasionally gathered in exclusive nativist fraternities such as the Order of United Americans or the United Sons of America. But when immigration coincided with hard times, as it did in the late 1830s and early 1840s and especially in the mid-1850s, and/or with periods of political discontent, then the charges advanced against immigrants multiplied and nativist groups formed independent political parties. In certain cities like Baltimore, New York, and Philadelphia, for example, anti-immigrant American Republican and Native American parties appeared in the 1830s and 1840s. They attracted working class and middle class voters angered by the job competition from immigrants, the increase in crime, public drunkenness, and pauperism that accompanied immigration, the supposed pollution of the body politic by ignorant immigrant voters, and an assertiveness by Catholic clergymen that supposedly threatened the nation's Protestant values and institutions.
By far the most massive and powerful political backlash against immigrants and Catholics before the Civil War, however, came with the Know Nothing movement of the mid-1850s. Not only did Know Nothings blame immigrants for economic, social, and political ills, but they focused on particular political actions by the Roman Catholic hierarchy, especially its attempt to secure public tax support for Catholic parochial schools, and the huge increase in the immigrant vote since 1848 as evidence that the long-warned of Papal plot to subvert America's republican institutions was reaching fruition. Demanding that immigrants be prevented from voting until they had resided in the United States for twenty-one years and that all foreigners and all Catholics be proscribed from public office, the Know Nothings, who began as another secret fraternity called the Order of the Star Spangled Banner, enlisted over a million members across the country in 1854 and 1855. In those years, moreover, their candidates won a string of astonishing political victories that smashed Lincoln's beloved Whig party while also contributing to massive Democratic defeats. During and after 1856, however, most northern Know Nothings were absorbed into the Republican party, and they would help elect Lincoln president in 1860, even though Lincoln himself had nothing but disdain for Know Nothings' anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic bigotry.
grew up hearing stories about how one of my ancestors arrived on the Mayflower. I also knew my father's family of English and Welsh immigrants were among the original Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley. Some of them later married Irish immigrants and raised families in Utah and California. Then there were the great-great-grandparents who emigrated from Sweden to Minnesota in the 1890s. Myself, I am a California native of no particular religious bent, who has lived in Illinois, Michigan, New York, Texas, and Oregon. When I was younger I married an Iranian living in the United States on a student visa. I have a brother whose girlfriend is from China, living in the United States on a work visa. Another brother married a woman whose long family lineage in California's central valley includes Native American ancestry.
Our family story is an American story, not unlike countless other American stories. It is a family history of hopes for a better life, of uprooted lives and new, unfamiliar landscapes, of years of hard work and confrontations with adversity and discrimination. It is the story of the Swedish great-grandfather who came to this country in the 1890s as a farmhand, working his way up to an accountant's position with a Minneapolis home heating company. In the bleak Depression era winter of 1931-32, he faced arrest when his employer discovered he had arranged for off-the-books coal deliveries to families who could no longer pay. Distraught, he killed himself. It is also the story of my father, a man with an entrepreneurial spirit whose life was marked by continual success in business. It is the story of other generations who have walked many paths in life. It is an immigrants story.
The immigrant experience in America was never just a glorious tale. But in the United States today the darker side of the immigration story is repeating itself. President Bush has apparently been advised that leadership on the immigration issue means being pro-active, which is another way of saying send in the troops. The White House Deciderator's latest stab at deciding something involves plans now to significantly increase the presence of National Guard troops along the southwestern border. Hearing this latest news I can't help but wonder if the Guard troops will be checking the papers of corporate executives from the United States who are shipping good-paying American jobs to northern Mexico where the plants they operate pay subsistence-level wages. Where I live In Bloomington, Illinois, the local newspaper reports this past week that the General Electric plant is laying off another 56 workers. Their jobs aren't being eliminated, just moved to Apodaca, Mexico and Vega Alta, Puerto Rico. So far I haven't noted any protest by local or state politicians otherwise known for their concerns over the influx of "illegals."
Indeed, immigrants have once again become the target of xenophobic voices who seek to blame the reported 12 million "illegals" for every evil under the American sun, taking jobs and draining social services. In the spirit of the Anti-Exclusion Act of 1882, which sought to keep Chinese "coolies" from American shores, the U.S. House of Representatives bill passed last December under the sponsorship of Rep. James Sensenbrenner (R-WI.) would transform millions of undocumented families into criminal felon families. With visions of building The Great Wall of the Southwest, the bill's flair for the police state is further embellished by a provision that criminalizes anyone who provides assistance to undocumented workers.
Unfortunately, the Senate's "compromise" bill sponsored by Senators Kennedy (D-Mass) and McCain (R-Ariz.) constitutes a compromise only in the justice it also denies to immigrant workers. The Senate bill proposes stepped-up border enforcement measures, but no border wall with Mexico. But it would raise higher the wall of second-class status for immigrants consigned to labor's bargain basement in a greatly expanded "guest workers" program. Here's the thorn in this rose: The proposed ten-year guest worker system expected to win Senate approval later this month represents another way to permanently structure a large, two-tier workforce into the U.S. economy, as the AFL-CIO's Executive Council recently charged. The result can only lead to a further deterioration in the quality of the job market, as once decent-paying, permanent jobs continue to be transformed into temporary, benefit-starved jobs employing foreign "guests" who will be inherently more vulnerable to employer abuse. The thorns get even pricklier as the Senate bipartisan proposal comes at a time when many good American jobs are already being outsourced as low-pay, contract-work spread across the globe.
The folks in Congress likely assumed they could tighten the immigration knot without having to worry about what those directly affected by more restrictive legislation actually thought about all this. They were mistaken. In a display of grass-roots activism as unprecedented as it is understandable, immigrants have responded. Mass protest marches involving millions have in recent weeks made it clear that immigrants want what everyone else wants—equality.
The mass marches had the effect of a depth charge on the narrow liberal-conservative debate over immigration. The sea of humanity in the streets from coast to coast conveyed with a previously unseen force the true human dimension of the immigration issue. You could see it in the eyes of the marchers. You could hear it in their chants. You could read it on the banners and signs. This was a pageant of humanity gone to extraordinary lengths for their otherwise very ordinary aspirations for fair play and a better life.
Equality now translates first into amnesty for those illegal workers and their families who are working in the United States. Equality now also demands that any Congressional legislation that increases the hardships of immigrant workers and the undocumented be rejected. Instead of focusing on new enforcement provisions against employers who hire undocumented workers, our public energy would be far better spent targeting the exploitation of these workers. Is it right that "illegal" workers who contribute to the very legal profits of thousands of companies live without equal employment law protections?
Indeed, the questions we can ask about the plight of immigrants quickly become questions we can ask about all working Americans. Is it right that the minimum wage in 2006 fails to translate into even a close approximation of a living wage? Is it right that full-time work in this country does not guarantee a life out of poverty? American citizens express growing concern over the Bush Administration's encroachments on civil liberties under the guise of a "War on Terror." Rightly so. They should also be concerned that the U.S. Supreme Court in 2003 declared that even legal immigrants convicted of a crime can be subject to indefinite detention.
Isn't it obvious that the fate of American workers are linked by ties of class, not to mention an elementary sense of social justice, to what happens to our immigrant brothers and sisters who work in this country's poorest, most exploited jobs. The current economy is a hardship economy for tens of millions, worried about broken pension plans, unaffordable health care, and too many damn jobs with too little pay. It's a circumstance expressing the skewed social priorities that result when corporate power holds such sway over our democracy. It's also an expression of decades of labor union quiescence.
It's encouraging at least that the AFL-CIO's current position on immigration rights rejects scapegoating foreign workers. In its recent Executive Council statement (March 1, 2006), the labor organization calls for reforms to provide a path to permanent residency for currently undocumented workers. Their reasoning is simple—and right: "The broken immigration system has allowed employers to create an underclass of workers, which has effectively reduced working standards for all workers."
In Mexico, of course, the situation is even more dire. The impact of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has flooded the country in recent years with cheap, subsidized U.S. corn, forcing some 2 million Mexican farmers into poverty and ruin. Wages in Mexican industry have also fallen precipitously. Many Mexican immigrants who come to the United States are victims of these unjust corporate trade policies. We should ask ourselves: Why should they be punished for trying to survive?
Yet this is exactly the blame-the-victim logic of a national political debate that fundamentally views immigrants—not corporate policies—as "the problem." Predictably, the upswing of activism in defense of immigrant rights is also sparking some public backlash. Typical of such sentiment is the recent letter writer to the Chicago Tribune, who finds herself "appalled at the nerve of illegal immigrants and their friends marching in our streets demanding and threatening that we reward them for breaking our laws." It's unknown whether the letter writer, writing from the upscale Chicago suburb of Lake Barrington, has also taken up with her local municipality the issue of the undocumented workers who undoubtedly maintain the landscapes of the more than one resident of this town of long driveways and expansive lawns.
The irrationality of such anti-immigrant sentiment is evident in the ways immigrants are attacked for both working and not working. They're portrayed to suit convenience as either lawless stealers of jobs or as outsiders living off our public services. It's a picture that demonizes instead of edifies the plight of millions of human beings whose aspirations and concerns are not that different from the average citizen. In fact, more than 90 percent of undocumented men work, according to a 2005 Urban Institute report. That's a rate higher than that for U.S. citizens or legal immigrants. Yet this group is ineligible for welfare, food stamps, and Medicaid. They do pay taxes, however. Undocumented immigrants also contribute to the costs of state and local education in real estate taxes included in rents. Additionally, three-quarters of undocumented workers pay social security taxes, the benefits of which will elude them.
Two years ago I was in an auto accident with a fellow who sideswiped my car on a snowy Illinois road. He turned out to be from Mexico and was working in the Chicago area with no drivers license or insurance. The police arrested him on the spot. How much better it would have been for both of us if he could have legally acquired a license and insurance. Why not? Is it better that so many people have to live in the shadows of our communities?
Alcott, (Amos) Bronson (1799-1888), American educator and philosopher who developed a method of teaching young children by conversation. In 1834 he established a school at Boston. The school was criticized by the press but it was highly regarded by the general public. He was a leader of the doctrine of transcendentalism. His writings include Observations on the Principles and Methods of Infant Instructions, Concord Days, Table Talk, and Sonnets.
Alcott, Louisa May (1832-88), American writer who was the daughter of Bronson Alcott. She was born in Germantown, Pa. And tutored by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Her most famous works Little Women, Little Men, and Jo's Boys are considered classics. In order to support her own poverty-stricken family, she had to write several thrillers which would sell well.
Amana Society-Dveloped from a commune organized in Germany but it broke up after a leader's death. It was reorganized In the US and ended up in Iowa. They opposed taking oaths, partaking in amusement, paid ministries, and military service.
Anthony, Susan B (1820-1906) American reformer, born in Adams, Mass. She was an abolitionist that was active in temperance and woman suffrage movements. With Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she organized National Woman Suffrage Association and was president of it.
Astor, John Jacob (1763-1848) German-America merchant and financier. He immigrated to New York City and entered the fur trade. He was ambitious and skillful in business. He organized the America Fur Co. and established trading posts along the Missouri and Columbia rivers. He also founded the village of Astoria (now in Oregon).
Audubon, John Jay(1785-1851), American naturalist, ornithologist, and artist, noted for his realistic portrayals of American wildlife, and in whose honor the National Audubon Society was founded. He was born in Santo Domingo (now Haiti), and studied drawing in France. He made the painting of American birds his lifework and published The Birds of America, consisting of 435 hand-colored folio plates depicting 1065 life-size birds.
Bancroft, George (1800-91), American historian and statesman, called the father of American history. He was born in Worcester, Mass., educated at Harvard and the University of Gottingen, where he prepared for the ministry. In 1834 he completed the first volume of History of the United States, and completed nine more in the next 40 years. He was appointed secretary of the navy by President Polk and established the U.S. Naval Academy.
Barnum, Phineas Taylor (1810-1891) American showman who opened Barnum's American Museum of curios in New York City. He exhibited the dwarf Tom Thumb with great success in U.S. and England. He brought Jenny Lind to the U.S. for a concert tour. He opened "The Greatest Show on Earth" in Brooklyn, along with James A. bailey.
Beecher, Catherine E. (1800-78) Was a supporter of education for women. She believed that homemaking was the "true Profession" for women and education should prepare them for it. She organized the study of home economics and stressed the importance of physical exercise for girls. In 1852 she founded the American Women's Educational Association to promote the need for schools and teachers in the Midwest.
Beecher, Henry Ward (1813-87), Aerican clergyman and abolitionist, one of the most popular preachers of his day. His theological views were fairly orthodox, but he attracted huge audiences with his brilliant speeches and by his espousal of such controversial causes as the biological theory of evolution and scientific historical study of biblical texts. One of the best-known supporters of the abolitionists and women's rights. He was the editor in chief of the Independent, a religious and political periodical, and edited The Christian Union.
Beecher, Lyman (1775-1863) American Presbyterian clergyan, born in New Haven, Conn., and educated at Yale College. He attained national prominence through a brilliant sermon on the death of Alexander Hamilton.
Blackwell, Elizabeth (1821-1910) first woman medical doctor in the U.S. She was one of the founders of the National Heath Society of London and of the London School of Medicine for Women.
Blackwell, Lucy Stone (1818-1893) American pioneer in the women's rights movement. She became a lecturer for the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society. She was instrumental in organizing women's rights conventions in the 1850s. She helped establish the American Woman Suffrage Association and found the Woman's Journal, a woman suffrage weekly.
Bloomer, Amelia Jenks (1818-94) American reformer. Self-educated, Bloomer founded The Lily, a semimonthly periodical "devoted to the interests of women," published in Seneca Falls, N.Y. She became famous for her stand in favor of dress reform. She appeared at her lectures during the early 1850s wearing full trousers, gathered at the ankle, under a short skirt. These garments became known as bloomers.
Booth, Edwin Thomas (1833-93) American actor. He made his stage debut in 1849 and toured California with his father appearing in other western states and in Australia. Became one of the leading figures on the New York City stage. He managed the Winter Garden Theater in New York City. After his brother John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln, he opened his own theater, which was a failure. He toured the U.S. and England where he alternated in repertory performances with Sir Henry Irving. He is considered one of the finest tragic actors.
Booth, John Wilkes (1838-65), American actor of Shakespearean roles. He was a violent partisan of the cause of the South in the American Civil War and organized an unsuccessful conspiracy to abduct President Lincoln.
Brown, John (1809-59), American abolitionist, attempted to end slavery by force and greatly increased tension between North and South. In 1855 he followed five of his sons to Kansas, a center of struggle on the slavery issue. His killing proslavery adherents at Pottawatomie Creek and his withstanding a party of attacking Missourians gained him national fame as a foe of slavery. He was arrested and charged with treason and murder. His eloquent defense on behalf of the slaves has become famous. He was convicted and hanged.
Brownson, Orestes Augustus (1803-71), American clergyman and writer. He was a Universalist minister, and Unitarian minister who converted to Roman Catholicism. Published Brownson's Quarterly Review. Author of The Spirit-Rapper, The Convert, The American Republic.
Bryant, William Cullen (1794-1878), American poet and journalist. Wrote "Thanatopsis" his most famous work at an age of 17. As a journalist he campaigned vigorously for free trade, free speech, the rights of workers, and the abolition of slavery.
Burrit, Elihu, (1810-1879), Called the Learned Blacksmith. American pacifist who was a blacksmith by trade and an autodidact; became public lecturer, founded Christian Citizen, advocating international peace and edited it. Founded League of Universal brotherhood, organized "Friends of Peace" Congress, Brussels; U.S. consul, Birmingham, England.
Cartwright, Peter. (1785-1872). American clergyman. Itinerant Methodist preacher in Kentucky and Illinois, noted for fiery revivalist sermons. Author of Autobiography, Fifty Years as a Presiding Elder.
Channing, William Ellery (1780-1842), American Unitarian clergyman, known as the Apostle of Unitarianism. Pastor of the Federal Street Congregational Church in Boston from 1803 until his death, he was spokesperson of Protestants who were unable to accept the Calvinist doctrine of humanity's inherent evil.
Chautuqua Movement popular U.S. movement in adult education that flourished during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. IT began after the Civil War as an assembly for the training of Sunday school teachers and church workers at Chautauqua Lake in New York state. By 1900 the Chautauqua assembly included a school of theology, a correspondence school, and a publishing house.
Cooper, James Fenimore (1789-1851) American novelist, travel writer, and social critic, the first great American writer of fiction. He was known for his action-packed plots and his vivid, idealized, portrayal of American life in the forest and at sea. He served as a sailor in the merchant marine and as a midshipman in the U.S. Navy even though his father was very wealthy. He is most famous for his Leatherstocking Tales.
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande (1789-1851), French painter, inventor of the daguerreotype. He first worked as a scene painter for the opera. He began to paint extensive panoramas, finally evolving the diorama, which attracted much attention. He helped to work out photography on metal plates, the daguerreotype process, the improvement of which was to result in modern photography
Darwin, Charles Robert (1809-82), British scientist, laid the foundation of modern evolutionary concepts of development of all forms of life through natural selection. His work was a major influence on the life and earth sciences. He went to school to become a clergyman. His novel that "shook the world," The Origin of Species, sold out on the first day of publication and went through six edition.
The Dial, American transcendentalism began with the formation of the Transcendental Club in Boston. Among the leaders were the essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson, the feminist and social reformer Margaret Fuller, the preacher Theodore Parker, the educator Bronson Alcott, the philosopher William Ellery Channing, and the author and naturalist Henry David Thoreau. The Transcendental Club published a magazine, The Dial, and some of the members participated in an experiment in communal living at Brook Farm. It included many major works.
Dickinson, Emily (1830-1886) lived most of her life as a recluse, seldom seeing anyone other than her immediate family and a few close friends. Her poetry is concerned with immortality, love, nature and death. It was written in a simple, precise language, and with little humor. She is considered to be one of the most gifted poets in American literature. She wrote over 1700 poems, most of which were published after her death.
Dix, Dorethea (1802-1887) Gained respect for her efforts as a social reformer and to gain humane treatment for the insane, and prison inmates. She served as superintendent of the U.S. Army nurses during the Civil War. Many states established publicly supported asylums for the mentally ill, and abandoned chaining prisoners became of her work.
"Dixie", a popular term used to refer to the South, as a land of slaves and plantations. The song "dixie" was composed by David D. Emmett in 1859 and became popular for the Confederate army marching during the year.
Douglas, Stephan A. (1813-1861) He was a political figure known as the "little Giant" because of his short stature. An Illinois Democrat served in the U.S. House of Representatives and was elected U.S. Senator. He took part in a series of seven famous debates against the Republican Abraham Lincoln focusing on the continuing slavery. The debates made Lincoln a national political figure.
Douglass, Frederick (1818-1895) Prominent abolitionist. He was an escaped slave from Maryland and settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, where he worked as a chimney sweep and laborer. He spoke tirelessly for the antislavery cause. He fled to England, bought his freedom and returned to Massachusetts, where he founded the abolitionist newspaper: The Northern Star. He helped recruit black troops for the Union and advised Lincoln. He served as American minister to Haiti after the Reconstruction.
Dred Scott Decision- A ruling by the Supreme Court on the issue of slavery. It declared that no *****, free or slave, could claim U.S. Citizenship. It also stated that Congress could not prohibit slavery in U.S. territories. The ruling led to resentment in the North and led the nation a step closer to war. It influenced the 14th Amendment: extending citizenship to former slaves and giving them full civil rights.
Eakins, Thomas (1844-1916) was recognized as a great American painter. He painted people from all walks of life in realistic situations. He often used photographs to achieve scientific accuracy and painted with precise attention to detail.
Eddy, Mary Baker (1821-1910) founded the Christian Science religion in that the believers can heal the body through religious faith and a person's spirit. She was injured in an accident and attributed her recovery to prayer and spiritual mind control. She founded the daily newspaper The Christian Science Monitor.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882) His philosophy known as transcendentalism, affected the thought and literature of the late 19th century. He was an essayist, lecturer, poet, philosopher and abolitionist. He taught that people must learn from their experiences in life. In his essay "Self-reliance" he emphasizes optimism and the importance of the individual.
Everett, Edward (1794-1865) He was a congressman, Governor of Massachusetts, U.S. minister to England, secretary of state for Millard Fillmore and a U.S. Senator. He was a statesman, clergyman and oratory. He was featured as a speaker in Gettysburg on November 19, 1863, his two hour oration preceded Lincoln's two minute Gettysburg Address. In 1860 he was defeated when he ran for Vice President for the Constitutional Union Party.
Finney, Charles G. (1792-1875) Presbyterian and Congregationalist revival preacher. He served as President of Oberlin College from 1851-1866. His preaching were local and direct, he was a lawyer previously. He emphasized human free will and taught that it is possible for people, with God's help, to live perfect lives free from sin.
Fitzhugh, George (1806-1881) American lawyer, journalist, and author. A Major propagandist of slavery as a beneficient institution and of southern plantation as model for a national government. Wrote Sociology for the South and Cannibals All!
Foster, Stephan C. (1826-1864) composer that wrote the words and music to over two hundred songs, including "Away Down South, "Oh, Susanna!", "My Old Kentucky Home," and many others. His music was inspired by Southern life though he had little knowledge of the South.
Fourier, Charles (1772-1837) French socialist. He criticized the social conditions and held that society could be improved if private property were eliminated. He wanted to create small, self-sufficient farm communities of about 1600 each. All persons would be required to work but could chose their own type of work. He could not get enough money to start such a venture although he had many followers.
Fuller, Margaret (1810-1850), wrote Women in the Ninteenth Century, on the right of women to be independent. She was journalist, women's rights activist, and critic. She served as editor of the Dial, a respected transcendentalist magazine and became the first female journalist working for a major newspaper. She became one of the first foreign correspondent for an American newspaper, when Horace Greeley sent her to Europe in 1846 to cover the revolutions unfolding. She married an Italian and joined the movement for a free Roman republic. Returning with her family to America the ship sank off the coast of Fire Island, her husband Giovanni Ossoil, son and Margaret all died.
Gag rule (1836) A series of resolutions introduced by John C. Calhoun in the Senate and rejected there but passed in the House, forbidding the reading of antisalvery petitions in Congress. John Quincy Adams repeatedly delivered speeches against the rules, arguing they denied the people the rights to free speech and to petition the government. They were repealed in 1844.
Garrison, William L. (1805-1879) Abolitionist. Garrison founded the antislavery newspaper the Liberator. It was published until slavery was abolished. He helped organize the American antislavery society in 1833, serving as its president. He was almost lynched in Boston by an angry mob because of his extreme abolitionist views. He urged northern secession and burning of the Constitution.
Gray, Asa (1810-88) American botanist, famous for his manual of plants. He was appointed professor of natural history at Harvard. Gray 's work in taxonomy made the best of his day. The herbarium at Cambridge, established by Gray, grew to be the largest and most valuable in this country.
Greely, Horace (1811-1872) Newspaper publisher and politician. He founded the New York Tribune in 1841. His editorials promoted his political views, which included organized labor and opposition to the Mexican war, woman suffrage and slavery. His advice, "Go West young man and grow up with the country," influenced the thousands of settlers. Greeley, Colorado is named after him. He joined the Republican party in 1854 and supported the election of Lincoln.
Grimke, Sarah and Angelina (1792-1873) American reformers. Became Quakers and then were involved in abolitionist movement; lecturers for American Anti-Slavery Society, took up women's rights campaign. Angelina was the author of Appeal to the Christian Women of the South, Appeal to the Women of the Nominally Free States, Sarah of Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States, Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, worked with Theodore Weld on Slavery As It Is.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804-1864) American novelist and short story writer, one of the first great American authors. After twelve years of isolation to perfect his writing, he produced an unsuccessful first novel but a number of short stories (collected as Twice-Told Tales) that won him some recognition. He married Sophia Peabody in 1842 and thereafter completed his most famous novels, The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables. The Scarlet Letter is considered the first American psychological novel.
Higginson, Thomas Wentworth Storrow (1823-1911) American writer, clergyman, and soldier. From 1847 to 1850 was a Unitarian minister, then moved by intense abolitionist conviction, he resigned. He went on to run unsuccessfully for the U.S. Congress. He enlisted as a captin during the Civil War, and he served as colonel in command of the first black regiment in the U.S. Army. Army Life in a Black Regiment is his account of his war experiences. After the war he distinguished himself as an advocate of the political rights of women. He was Emily Dickinson's confidant/mentor and edited her poems.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1841-1935) American jurist, associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court for 30 years, distinguished for his great legal learning, sound judgement, humor, and power of expression. Fought for the Union. He edited the American Law Review then became a lecturere on common law at the Lowell Institute. His lectures became internationally renowned. After serving as associate justice, he served as Chief Justice for 3 years. He was then appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by President Roosevelt, and held the position until he tired in 1932. He interpreted the Constitution liberally and was known as the "Great Dissenter" because of his disagreement with the views of his colleagues on the Court.
Howe, Smauel Gridley 1801-1876. American ecucator and reformer. Served as soldier and surgeon in Greek war for independence from Turkye. Head of Perkins School for the Blind; excited widespread interest by successful work with Laura Bridgman, interested in care of the feebleminded, prison reform, abolishment of imprisonment for debt, and antislavery movement; edited "The Commonwealth": chairman of the Mass. Board of State Charities and married Julia Ward Howe.
Irving, Washington 1783-1859. American writer, the first U.S. author to achieve international renown. Studied law and toured Europe for his health. He began to contribute satirical essays and sketches to NY newspapers. Involved in Salmagundi, a series of satirical essays and poems. Wrote A History of New York, written by his famous comic creation, the Dutch-American scholar Diedrich Knickerbocker. His most famous stories are "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow."
Liberia The American Colonization Society began settlement of black Americans, most of them freed slaves, in 1822. Eventually, 15,000 blacks emigrated to Liberia. Organized chiefly by Robert Finley, the society established a successful colony at what was to become Monrovia, Liberia. The people who were transferred were not welcomed for they took the local people's lands.
Lind, Jenny professional name of Johanna Maria Lind Golschmidt. A Swedish soprano singer, popularly known as the Swedish Nightingale. Went through the singing school of the Court Theater, she debuted as Agathe in Der Freischutz. Her success was instantaneous. After an extensive tour of Europe, she toured the U.S. Managed by the American showman P. T. Barnum, it was the height of her career. She married Otto Goldschmidt, whoconducted the Bach Choir in London. She lived for a few years in Dresden and then settled in London. Lind's last public appearance was at Dusseldorf.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 1807-82. American poety who was one of the most popular and celebrated poets of his time. He taught modern languages at Bowdoin and Harvard. He then devoted himself exclusively to writing. After his death his bust was placed at Poety's Corner of Westminister Abey in London. He is especially well-known for his volumes of verse, Voices of the Night, and Ballads.
Lovejoy, Elijah Parish 1802-37. American abolitionist. He was ordained a Presbyterian minister and shortly thereafter became the editor of the Observer, an influential Presbyterian published weekly. He incurred the enmity of proslavery forces by writing antislavery editorials, and under the threat of violence, he moved to Alton, Il. Although his presses were destroyed three times by proslavery mobs, he continued to attack slavery and called for the formation of a state abolition society. While attempting to defend his presses from attack he was shot and killed. His death stimulated the growth of the abolitionist movement throughout the country.
Lowell, James Russel 1819-91. American poety, essayist, editor, diplomat, and critic, whose efforts on behalf of Americna writers brought them international attention for the first time. He wrote for the Boston Courier the first of the "Biglow Papers," a series of satirical verses in Yankee dialect purporting to be by Hosea Biglow, a young New England farmer. He became a professor of modern languages at Harvard, serving until 1876.
Lyceum Movement, 19th-century trend in popular adult education in the U.S., the name of which is derived from the Lyceum, the school near Athens where Aristotle lectured his students. The American educator Josiah Holbrook opened the first American lyceum in Millbury, Mass., in 1826. Its purpose was to spread useful information in the community by means of lectures and debates. Other lyceums were soon established throughout the country and the movement reached its peak before the American Civil War. It was the prototype of other adult education systems, such as the Chautauqua movement, and it helped promote the establishment of libraries and museums
Mann, Horace 1796-1859. American educator that became a lawyer. Representative in Mass. Legislature and a state senator. He encouraged laws prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and lottery tickets, establishing state hospitals for the insane, and creating a state board of education. He became president of Antioch College, a non-sectarian, coeducation institution. His reports written when he was secretary to the Mass. Board of education are a record of ideas on meeting educational needs by a man who strongly influenced the evolution of modern education.
McGuffy, William Holmes 1800-73. American educator. Compiler and editor of series of primary school texts, the Eclectic Readers. Contained simple moral lessons, fables, poems, and samples from Am. And Eng. Literature.
Melville, Herman 1819-91. American novelist. Most famous for Moby Dick and Billy Budd. He spent much time on ships as a cabin boy and whaler.
Mott, Lucretia Coffin 1793-1880. American abolitionist and feminist. Her husband and her helped organize the American Antislavery Society and were delegates at an anti-slavery convention in London.
Owen, Robert (1771-1858) British utopian socialist, generally considered the father of the cooperative movement. He began to get involved in f acotry owning. He helped find the first British trade union.
Parkman, Francis 1823093. American historian. He studied law for two years. He traveled in Europe and explored the American West, living among the Sioux and other tribes. Became an authoritative historical writer on the struggle between France and England for dominance in colonial America.
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer 1804-1894. Feminist, abolitionist, historian, theologian and philosopher. She spoke several languages before she was 19 including Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Chinese. She gave history lectures and opened a bookshop that became a gathering place for transcendentalist activities.
Peabody, Sophia A painter and sculptor who studied with Chester Harding and other contemporary artists. She supported herself with her extraordinary copywork, but her poor health kept her mostly at her house until age 33, when she married Nathan Hawthorne. She helped bring him out of his isolation.
Peale, Charles Willson 1741-1827. American painter, who was the most prominent portraitist of the Federal period. He painted notable portraits of many military leaders (14 of Washington.
Phillips, Wendell (1811-84) American abolitionist leader and political reformer, whose oratorical vigor helped popularize the antislavery cause in the period before the American Civil War. He attained wide recognition as one of the most eloquent antislavery orators when he delivered a ringing denunciation of the proslavery mob that had killed the abolitionist editor Elijah Parish Lovejoy.
Poe, Edgar Allan. 1809-1849. American poet and short story writer. Creator of the American Gothic tale and detective fiction genre. He ran away from home, enlisted in Army. Gained a meager living by writing.
Proesser, Gabriel 1775-1800. Black slave. Planned a revolt to end slavery in VA and create an independent state for blacks. Organized about a thousand slaves for an attack on Richmond, two betrayed his plans resulting in the capture and hanging of him and 34 others.
Rose,Ernestine L. 1810-1892. Wrote several books on the women suffrage movement. She wrote the Review of Horace Mann's Two Lectures delivered in New York February 17 and 29, 1852. Reformer, abolitionist.
Rush, Dr. Benjamin. 1745-1813. American physician and statesman, Made professor of chemistry. A signer of the Declaration of Independence, and member of Both Continental Congresses. A surgeon general of the Continental army, and staff member at the Penn. Hospital.
Seward, William Henry 1801-72. American statesman, governor of NY and supporting educational reform and public works. He practiced law. Served on U.S. Senate, he established an uncompromising antislavery policy. Active in organizing the Republican party. Served as secretary of state. Helped purchase Alaska--"Seward's Folly."
Shakers religious group. Founded by Ann Lee, who believed herself to be God. It flourished, 18 new communities existed with a membership of 6000. Held property in common, practiced asceticism, and honored celibacy above marriage.
Spiritualism belief that the dead manifest their presence to people through a clairvoyant. Spiritualism has been practiced since prehistoric times. In 1848, an alleged child medium, Margaret Fox, 1833-93, was exploited by her family and aroused sensational news stories that spurred the creation of a cult of spiritualism.
Smith, Joseph 1805-44. American religious leader, who was the founding prophet of Mormonism. Smith experienced vision when living in Palmyra, NY between 14 and 25 years of age calling him to restore the true Christian religion.
Stanton, Elizabeth C. 1815-1902. Social reformer, who, along with Susan B. Anthony, led the struggle for Woman Suffrage. She became interested in the temperance and antislavery movements. In 1848 Stanton and Lucretia C. Mott, organized the first women's rights convention.
Starkweather, John Commissioner of Deeds in 1876-1877 in the D.C. In 1846 legislatures authorized the appointment of commissioners to each state and the D.C.
Stowe, Harriet Beecher 1811-96. American writer and abolitionist, author of Uncle Tom's Cabin, a forceful indictment of slavery and one of the most powerful novels of its kind in American literature. Daughter of the liberal clergyman Lyman Beecher.
Strong, George T. New York lawyer, graduated from the University of Rochester, diary on New York Politics.
Stuart, Gilbert Charles (1755-1828) portrait painter from Newport, RI. Became the pupil of the expatriate painter Benjamin West in England and was influenced by Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds. Did portraits of Presidents and Kings.
Thoreau, Henry David 1817-62. American writer, philosopher, and naturalist, whose work demonstrates how the abstract ideals of libertarianism and individualism can be effectively instilled in a person's life.
Tocquelville, Alexis de 1805-1859. French writer and politician. With Gustave de Beaumont they spent 9 months in the U.S. and published Du systeme pententiaire aux Etats-Unis et de son application en France; gained internation fame with De la democratie en Amerique, giving perceptive analysis of the Americna political system and social structure.
Transcendentalism In philosophy and literature, belief in a higher reality than that found in sense experience or in a higher kind of knowledge than that achieved by human reasoning.
Trumbull, John 1750-1831. American lawyer and poet, educated at Yale. Wrote The Progress of Dullness, an attack on the educational system of his time, and the mock epic poem M'Fingal, which satirized the British Loyalist during the American Revolution.
Truth, Sojourner 1793-1883. Abolitionist and advocate of women's rights, born in slavery. She was freed when New York emancipated slaves in 1828. In 1843, she came into contact with the abolitionist movement, and for the next few years she toured the country speaking in its behalf.
Tubman, Harriet 1820-1913, abolitionist leader, born a slave. She served as a field hand and house servant on a Maryland plantation and married John Tubman, a free black. In 1849 she escaped North, and made 19 journeys back to lead other slaves to freedom.
Turner, Nat 1800-31. Leader of a black slave revolt. Born on a plantation, became a popular religious leader among fellow slaves and was convinced that God chose him to lead his people to freedom. On Aug. 21, 1831 he and five other slaves killed their master and family and, joined by 60 blacks, started a revolt. He was not captured for six weeks. 50 whites were slain during the uprising. He and 15 of his companions were hanged.
Walker, David 1785-1830. Abolitionist, son of slave, owned a used-clothing store; contributed to Freedom's Journal and wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, known as Walker's Appeal; calling on slaves to fight for freedom, pamphlet banned in the South.
Webster, Noah 1758-1843. American lexicographer, known for his pioneering American Dictionary of the English Language and for his espousal of American usage of the language.
Weems, Parson Mason 1759-1825. Preacher and writer. In 1784 he was ordained in the Anglican Church. He is remembered for his fictionalized biography The Life and Memorable Actions of George Washington which contains the well-known story of the cherry tree.
Whittier, John G 1807-92. Self-educated poet. His work attracted the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, editor of the Free Press newspaper to ask him to contribute articles. He began a long career as a contributing editor, essayist, and poet.
Willard, Emma 1787-1870. Self-educated educator. She entered the teaching profession in 1803 and was principal of the Female Academy. Willard established a boarding school for girls. Rejected contemporary theory on education for women.
Young, Brigham 1801-1877. Religious leader, journeyman painter and glazier by trade; near where Joseph Smith published the Book of Mormon. Converted and baptized in Mormon faith. Succeeded Joseph Smith as head of the Mormon Church and directed and superintended a mass migration of Mormons to the Great Sale Lake Valley in Utah.
London Company also Virginia Co., one of two English joint-stock companies chartered April 10, 1606, to colonize in North America. The other was the Plymouth Co. Founded Jamestown.
House of Burgesses 1658. Colonial representative assembly in Virginia.
Great Migration 1630, beginning of Great Migration witnessed the founding of Puritanism as the established religion. Rejecting democracy and toleration as unscriptural, Puritans put their trust in a theocracy of the elect that brooked no divergence from Puritan orthodoxy. Mass immigration to America.
Quakers Religious Society of Friends, a body of Christians, their fundamental belief is that divine revelation is immediate and individual. All persons may perceive the word of God in their soul.
1619 House of Burgesses approved in America, slavery begins.
Toleration Act 1649. Permitted people to chose believe in any religion they choose. Passed by the colony of Maryland and gave religious liberty to all Christians.
Holy Experiment 1619. The most famous Quaker colony was Pennsylvania. Penn's "Holy Experiment" tested how far a state could be governed consistently with Quaker principles, apcifism, and religious toleration.
Mayflower Compact Pilgrims were 500 miles northeast of their destination. The patent for their settlement was no longer binding, and some of the passengers desired total independence. All adult males were required to sign this compact. It consolidated the passengers into a "civil body politic" which had the power to frame and enact laws appropriate to the good of the settlement.
Fundamental Constitution The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, a document which served as a model for the U.S. Constitution. Captain Joseph Wadsworth supposedly secreted the colony's royal charter when Governor Sir Edmund Andros attempted to seize it in 1687.
Theocracy "government by a god" constitution, or policy, of a country in which God is regarded as the sole sovereign and the laws of the realm are seem as divine commandments.
Great Awakening revival of evangelical religion in the colonies, reached its peak in the 1740s. Local revivals, inspired by teachings of the congregational theologian Jonathan Edwards, and the Eng. Evangelist George Whitefield.
Nathaniel Bacon 1647-76. Bacon's Rebellion, uprising in 1676 of Virginia farmers, against colonial authorities. The colonists were upset about the Navigation Acts which forced them to trade with firms at prices established in England.
Parson's cause celebrated legal action in Virginia Colony in 1763. The action arose from the imposition by the Virginia legislature in 1758 of a law to fix clergymen's salaries, payable in tobacco, at a flat rate in currency.
Edwards, Jonathan 1703-58. Theologican and Congregational clergyman, stirred the religious revival called the Great Awakening with his sermons. A child prodigy. A firm believer in Calvinism and the doctrine of predestination.
Rev. Cotton Mather 1663-1728. Son of Increase Mather, educated at Harvard. He wrote extensively on the subject of witchcraft. His interested in science prompted him to champion inoculations against smallpox in 1721. Writings of historic events added his name to the list of historians in the era.
Albany Plan 1754. Franklin's "Plan of Union," adopted by the Albany Congress, would have established a general council, with representatives from the several colonies, to organize the common defense against the encroaching French and to supervise Indian relations with new settlements.
Navigation Acts 1650-51 passed by Great Britain. Legislation to promote and protect British industry and commerce against foreign competition. Stipulated goods imported or exported by British colonies in Africa, Asia, and American.
Navigation Act 1660 it specified certain articles, principally tobacco, rice, and indigo, that the colonists could export only to another British colony or England.
Boston Tea Party popular name for the action taken on Dec. 16, 1773 by a group of Boston citizens to protest the British tax on tea imported by the colonies. Citizens of Boston would not permit the unloaded of three British ships that arrived in Boston with 342 chests of tea. A group of Bostonians disguised as Indians boarded the vessels and emptied the tea into Boston Harbor.
Salutary Neglect The idea of ignoring something and letting it do its own thing. What Britain did to American until after the French and Indian War.
Peace of Paris, 1763 collection of treaties concluding the U.S. War of Independence and signed by representatives of Great Britain on one side and the United States, France, and Spain on the other.
Proclamation Line, 1763 The process of removing the Indians from their ancestral lands led to bitter disputes. The British tried to end this problem by setting up the Proclamation Line of 1763 along the Appalachian divide, allowing whites to take over what lay to the east but attempting to reserve what lay to the west as Indian territory.
George III 1738-1820. King of Great Britain and Ireland (1760-1820) who presided over the loss of Britain's American colonies. His problem was that he lacked the self-confidence and the mature statesmanship to form and achieve any long-term policy.
Henry, Patrick 1739-99. American orator and statesman, whose fiery patriotism was influential in leading the colonies toward revolution. He urged the adoption of a resolution to establish a state of defense in Virginia with a speech that is famous for these words: "I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death
Writs of Assistance, 1760 A time when "sides" were beginning to be formed in Massachusetts politics, and the radical wing of colonial opposition to British measures were led by James Otis.
Franklin, Benjamin 1706-1790. American statesman, scientist, and philosopher. Left Boston after disagreements with brother who he was apprenticed to and settled in Philadelphia as a printer. Known for Poor Richard's Almanac, his diplomacy, and scientific experiments and inventions.
Grenville, George 1712-70. British prime minister. He came into conflict with the king, who dismissed him in 1765. Known in Parliament, as the Gentle Shepherd after William Pitt the Elder (Lord Chathan) recited the words of a popular song "Gentle Shepherd, tell me where!" in reply to Grenville's querulous request that Parliament direct him where to impose new taxes.
Sugar Act, 1764. British legislation aimed at ending the smuggling trade in sugar and molasses from the French and Dutch West Indies and providing increased revenues to fund enlarged British Empire responsibilities following the French and Indian War.
Currency Act, 1764.Withdrew paper currencies, many of them surviving from the war period, from circulation. This was not done to restrict economic growth so much as to take out currency that was thought to be unsound, but it did severely reduce the circulating medium during the difficult postwar period and further indicated that such matters were subject to British Control.
Stamp Act, 1765. First British parliamentary attempt to raise revenue through direct taxation of all colonial commercial and legal papers, newspapers, pamphlets, cards, almanacs, and dice. Protests in America were completely unexpected. Colonists nullified the St amp Act by outright refusal to use the stamps as well as riots, stamp burning, and intimidation of colonial stamp.
Stamp Act Congress 1765 was convened in New York by moderate representatives of nine colonies to frame resolutions of "rights and grievances" and to petition the king and Parliament for repeal of the objectionable measures.
Sons of Liberty organizations formed in the American colonies in the summer of 1765 to oppose the Stamp Act. They took their name from a speech given in the British Parliament by Isaac Barre, in which he referred to the colonials who had opposed unjust British measures as the "sons of liberty." They rallied support for colonail resistance through the use of petitions, assemblies, and propaganda.
Declaratory Act 1766 declaration by the British Parliament that accompanied the repeal of the Stamp Act. It stated that the British Parliament's taxing authority was the same in America as in Great Britain. Parliament hardened its principle in this act by asserting its complete authority to make binding laws on the American colonies "in all cases whatsoever."
Charles Townshend British Chancellor of the Exchequer whose measures for taxation of the British-American Colonies intensified the hostilities that eventually led to the U.S. War of Independence. When Pitt became severely ill and Townshend assumed effective control of the administration, he proved by be financially brilliant and determined but devoid of sound political judgement.
Townshend Duties 1767 duties placed on tea, paper, lead and paint imported into the colonies. Townshend thought the colonists would have no objection since they felt internal taxes were unconstitutional and here they have no legal obligation. Colonists saw no difference and began to boycott British goods. Parliament repealed the duties except the tax on tea.
Boston Massacre 1770 skirmish between British troops and a crowd in Boston. U.S. widely publicized, it contributed to the unpopularity of the British regime in America in the years before the Revolution. Troops opened fire on a mob in Boston.
Lord North prime minister from 177-1782, whose vacillating leadership contributed to the loss of Great Britain's American colonies in the American Revolution. "Intolerable Acts" introduced during his administration.
Letters of a Pennsylvanian Farmer written by John Dickinson. Won fame for it, in 1767-8 it appeared in many colonial newspapers. The letters helped turn opinion against the Townshend Acts.
Gaspee Incident Act of open civil defiance of British authority when Rhode Islanders boarded and sank the revenue cutter Gaspee in Narragansett Bay.
Tea Act 1773 act imposed a tax on tea in the colonies that would help pay for Britain's colonial expenses. It was strongly rejected by the colonists, their resistance culminated in the Boston Tea Party where tea was dumped into the ocean.
Coercive Acts 1774. Four acts called Intolerable by the colonists with the Quebec act attached. 1) Boston Port Bill-closed the port until 15,000 pounds was paid back. 2) MA gov't act-Thomas Gage is now governor and head of military army. 3) Quartering Act-if soldiers are allowed to stay in colonial homes, 4) Administration of Justice Act-British officers if accused must be taken back to England to be tried, and 5) Quebec Act- allowed French Canadians to continue to speak French and practice Catholicism.
Quebec Act Added to Coercive acts. Allowed French Canadians to continue to speak French and practice Catholicism. Got the French on the side of the British.
First Continental Congress met because of Intolerable Acts. 55 delegates present only 12 states represented; Sept. 1774 in Philadelphia.
General Thomas Gage British general who successfully commands all British forces in North America but failed to stem the tide of rebellion as military governor of Mass. At the outbreak of the American Revolution.
Olive Branch Petition 1775. A petition to King George requesting an end to all military action against the colonists and seeking a peaceful solution to the differences between the colonists and England.
Hessians German mercenaries hired by the British to serve against the colonials in the American Revolution.
Common Sense by Thomas Paine. It asserts that the American colonies received no advantage from their mother country, which was intent on exploiting them, and that every consideration of common sense calls for the colonies to be come independent of Great Britain and to establish a republican government of their own.
Declaration of Independence in U.S. history, a document proclaiming the independence of the 13 British colonies in America, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.
Valley Forge the site where some 12,000 men under George Washington encamped for the winter in 1777. It was chosen because it was defensible and strategically located to enable him to protect Congress.
Marquis De Lafayette French statesman and officer. Entered French military service (1771) with drew (1776) to enter American service in the Revolutionary War (1777); commissioned major general in Continental Army (1777); became intimate associate of Washington.
Baron von Steuben 1730-94. Prussian-American general of the American revolutionary army, born in Magdeburg, Prussia (now Germany). He fought with distinction in the Seven Years' War and arrived at Portsmouth NH in 1778, offering his services to Congress and to the Continental army.
Saratoga campaign that helped decide the outcome of the American Revolution. Early in 1777, Lord George Germain, who was responsible for British war strategy, approved a plan suggested by John Burgoyne, calling for Burgoyne to lead an army south from Canada to Albany. His defeat to Gates helped the U.S. prove to France that they could fight.
Silas Deane 1737-89. American Revolution diplomat, born Dec. 24, 1737, in Groton, Conn., and educated at Yale College. He was in both Continental Congresses. He went to France to gain support from them.
Marion, Francis American general, born near Georgetown, SC. He proved to be a great guerrilla leader. He earned the epithet the "Swamp Fox" because he would attack and then withdraw to the swamps.
Yorktown Final battle of the American Revolution. Cornwallis surrendered his entire army to the French and American forces.
Treaty of Paris 1783 Signed by Great Britain and its adversaries, France and Spain, ended the Seven Years' War in Europe and the New World phase of the conflict, the French and Indian War in America.
Ordinance of 1785 Sent out representatives to survey the land before they could sell it; then back at home you could purchase the land and know what you were getting before you saw it; had grids and separated into sections. Land was to be sold at $1 an acre but in lots of 640 so people got together to purchase 640 acres.
Northwest Ordinance passed by congress on July 13, 1787, was one of the most important laws ever adopted. Provided for the government of the region north of the Ohio River and west of Pennsylvania. The territories could achieve equality with the older states by passing through three steps leading to self-government.
Daniel Shays 1747-1825. American Revolutionary officer and insurrectionary leader, born probably in Hopkinton, Mass. In the Revolution, engaged at Bunker Hill, Ticonderoga, Saratoga and Stony Point; commissioned captain (1777). Prominent in the insurrection in western Massachusetts (1786-87).
Benedict Arnold 1741-1801. American army officer, traitor. With Ethan Allen, captured Fort Ticonderoga. Leader of an unsuccessful campaign to capture Quebec. Arranged to surrender West Point to British, his plot was discovered. He fled to Britain where he died in poverty.
Second Continental Congress Met in Philadelphia May of 1775 and all 13 colonies were represented. Hoped that King and Parliament would let up. Drafted appeals to Britain, started an army and navy, and put Washington ahead of army.
Anti-Federalists a member of a group that opposed the adoption of the U.S. constitution. Against a strong central government, mostly farmers.
Genet Affair Genet was a French ambassador to the US ? tried to obtain American support for French during French war, but Washington declared neutrality and threatened to deport.
Funding First of Hamilton's programs; paying off the international debt by selling bonds (then selling more bonds to pay off those bonds). Thought it would be better to have a debt to your own people than to foreign countries. Jefferson and Madison were upset by this.
Whiskey Tax 1791. The federal tax was bought to tax whiskey makers. Caused a revolt in Pennsylvania.
Sedition Act prohibited support of the violent overthrow of the US government or any group promoting such ideas.
Aaron Burr 1756-1836. American political leader, born in Newark, NJ. He barely lost presidential election to Jefferson ? shot and killed Hamilton in a duel
Samuel Slater American cotton producer, recognized as founder of the cotton industry in the U.S. and pioneer of the factory system. He also founded the textile industry in America.
Yazoo Land Claims land along Yazoo given to federal government and claimed by the share holders to whom it had been sold to by Georgia.
Embargo Act law that prohibited U.S. vessels from trading with European nations during the Napoleonic Wars. Passed by Congress in December 1807 over Federalist opposition and at the behest of President Jefferson. A response to restrictive measures imposed on American neutrality by France and Great Britain, at war with each other.
Hartford Convention political assembly representing the Federalist party of the New England states, which met at Harford, on Dec. 14, 1814. Met to discuss government and opposition to war of 1812.
Treaty of Ghent agreement signed by the U.S. and Great Britain in Ghent, Belgium, concluding the war of 1812. Treaty provided for the return of all captured territory to the country in possession before the outbreak of hostilities.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward Darthmouth had a charter given to them by King George and the state of new Hampsire. They wanted to change it. Was taken to court and judge said that the original charter would still stand. States lose power again.
American Colonization Society The attempt to return slaves to Liberia. It was based on the belief that whites and blacks could not live together.
Gibbons v. Ogden NY attempts to grant a private concern of waterborn commerce between NY and NJ. Reminded NY that only Congress can interstate trade. Federal government above state governments again.
Thomas Hart Benton 1782-1858. American statesman, born in Hillsborough, N.C. He settled in Tennessee, where he studied law and was elected to the legislature. In the War of 1812 he raised a regiment of volunteers and also served on the staff of Gen. Jackson. Became a senator and raised Western support of Jackson. Fought against a second national bank.
Erie Canal artificial inland waterway, extending from Lake Erie, at Buffalo NY, to the Hudson R, near Albany NY. It was approximately 384 miles long. It inaugurated a new era in the growth of New York City, Buffalo, and surrounding areas in New York.
Henry Clay 1777-1852. U.S. statesman, secretary of state under John Q. Adams and an unsuccessful candidate for presidency in 1824, 1832, and 1844. One of the most popular and influential political leaders in American history. A true genius in the art of compromise, earned the title The Great Pacificator.
Tariff of Abominations The Tariff of 1828 and Later Crisis. Pushed the duties of almost 45% of many manufactured items. It also put a heavy tariff on raw materials. In 1833, a compromise tariff had to be introduced to help soothe the South.
The South Carolina Exposition and Protest 1829. Writing in response to Southern bitterness over the Tariff of 1828. Calhoun anonymously wrote this, taking the position that the state could block enforcement of a federal law. The state would be obliged to obey only if the law were made an amendment to the Constitution, by three-fourths of the states.
Webster-Hayne Debate disagreement over nullification. Hayne was a prominent spokesman for the doctrine of states' right. Webster spoke against nullification; for the federal government.
Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia the Cherokee Nations drafted their own Constitution in 1827. Gold deposits were found in their land (in Georgia). In 1819 George appealed to the U.S. government to remove the Cherokee from GA lands. The appeal failed and attempts were made to purchase the territory. After federal protection was denied by the government, the Cherokee agreed to cede the territory in exchange for $5,700,000 and move to Oklahoma.
"Force Bill" - 1832 President Jackson issued his "proclamation to the People of South Carolina" asserting the supremacy of the federal government and warning that "disunion by armed force is treason." It enabled the president to utilize army and navy to collect federal tariff duties.
Loco focos a member of a radical group of NY democrats organized in 1835 in opposition to the regular party organization.
Panic of 1837 value of paper money exceeded the amount of gold and silver backing it ? president demanded payment for western lands in gold and silver instead of credit ? banks went under
Denmark Vesey planned a slave rebellion meant to kill the entire white population. He was caught and hung.
New Harmony town in Indiana ? famous as an educational and cultural center during 1820?s ? founded by George Rapp and the Harmonists who sought relief from religious persecution in Germany
Brook Farm cooperative community established in 1841 in West Roxbury (now part of Boston), as a joint-stock company by leaders of the philosophical movement known as transcendentalism. George Rephs experimented with Utopian Socialism.
American Temperance Union fought for the abstinence from alcohol by persuasion and law ? after 18TH amendment failed they established the AA.
Stephen Austin received a huge tract of land from Mexican government to bring 300 American families. He promised that they would convert to Roman Catholicism and were to be Mexicanized. These were ignored and caused conflicts later- went to negotiate in 1833 over issues and he was thrown in jail for 8 months.
San Jacinto near Houston ? final battle of Texas? War for Independence.
Manifest Destiny Belief that it was God's will that the U.S. expand all the way to the Pacific.
Santa Anna Mexican general and dictator ? defeated Texans at the Alamo ? led Mexican army in the Mexican War. Lost at San Jacinto.
Gen. Winfield Scott (1786-1866). American army officer, who played a major role in the Mexican War and ran for the presidency in 1852. He lead troops in Mexico in a series of victories, at Veracruz, Cerro Gordo, and his rank was raised to Lieutenant General, the first since George Washington.
Wilmot Proviso-amendment attached to an appropriations bill adopted in 1846 by the U.S. House of Representatives, proposed by David Wilmot. It forbade slaves in territories obtained by Mexico.
Compromise of 1850-series of five legislative enactments, passed by the U.S. Congress during August and September 1850. These measures, essentially the work of Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, were designed to reconcile the political differences then dividing the antislavery and proslavery factions.
Gadsen Purchase Land purchased by the U.S. from Mexico in 1854 and named for the American railroad entrepreneur and diplomant James Gadsen. It is now a part of New Mexico and Arizona.
Liberty Party-first antislavery political party in the U.S. It was formed in 1839 by a group of individuals who broke away from the militant American anti-slavery society. The Party was organized on November 13 at Warsaw, N.Y.
Crittenden Compromise-measure proposed in December 1860 by U.S Senator John Jordan Crittenden. It intended to keep South from succeeding ? allowed slavery in South, banned in North, and disallowed Congress to change it.
Morill Tariff A financial conservative, Morrill sponsored the Tariff Act of 1861 which introduced high import duties not for the traditional purpose of national revenue but to protect American industry from overseas competition.
Jefferson Davis 1808-89. First and only president of the Confederate States of America. He was responsible for the raising of the Confederate armies, and the notable appointment of Gen. Robert E. Lee as commander of the Army of Virginia. His zeal, energy, and faith in the cause of the South were a source of much of the tenacity with which the Confederacy fought the Civil War.
Bill of Rights first ten amendments to the U.S. constitution. They safeguarded the fundamental individual rights against usurpation by the federal government and prohibited interference with existing rights.
Federalists advocates of a federal union between the American colonies after the Revolution and of the adoption of the U.S. Constitution.
Assumptions the federal government's policy that it assumed state loans; this made some states angry for they had already paid their debt and now they had to pay other state's debt.
"Report on Manufactures" 1791. The beginning of the Industrial Revolution, Alexander Hamilton reported that there were 17 different types of small scale manufacturing existing.
Neutrality Proclamation Made by Washington; a clear formulations of a doctrine of neutrality that was issued in 1793, in international law, and legally put the U.S. in a status that adheres to a policy of non-engagement during war.
XYZ Affair event in which Frenchman, Mr. X, Mr. Y, Mr. Z tried to force the American government to pay a bribe to enter negotiations with the French government
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions Resolutions adopted in 1798 by legislatures to protest the enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts. They argued that the government was formed by the states and therefore could not tell them what to do.
Mercy Otis Warren 1728-1814. American woman known for her letters. She used to writings to support the American cause. She was a friend and correspondent of leading political figures of her day.
Eli Whitney 1765-1825. American inventor. He invented the cotton gin which revolutionized the cotton cleaning process. He patented his invention but failed to profit because copyright laws were not enforced.
War Hawks Youthful newcomers who were eager to wipe out Indian resistance against white settlers. They thought the Indians were being supported by the British. This led to the war of 1812. They wanted to conquer Canada and get Britain off the continent.
Battle of New Orleans name of two battles fought near New Orleans. One was fought in the War of 1812 unknowingly after an treaty had been signed. Jackson became a military hero when he completely destroyed the British troops. Although the battle on no effect on the war, it proved America's military prowess.
Rush-Bagot Treaty agreement after the Treaty of Ghent between Britain and the U.S. to limit armament on the Great Lakes.
Tecumseh 1768-1813. American Indian chief of the Shawnee tribe. A gifted orator, he became the chief spokesman for Indians of Ohio Valley. He organized a Indian confederacy and later became a British general.
John C. Calhoun 1782-1850. Seventh vice-president of the U.S. He is America's best known theorist of the doctrines of states? rights and nullification which helped inspire the South?s effort to achieve independence in the Civil War
Adams-Onis Treaty In the Transcontinental (Adams-Onis) Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded all claim to West Florida, which came under official U.S. jurisdiction two years later.
Tallmadge Amendment The amendment which prohibited the introduction of slaves into Missouri and would set the children of all slaves free at age 25 ? not enforced until the Civil War.
Coffin Handbill flier with coffins on it put out by Adams supporters before the election of 1828 where much mudslinging occurred. The cofffins represented all of the people Jackson had killed during his numerous duels and brawls and trumpeting his handing of six mutinous militiamen.
Nicholas Biddle 1786-1844. American diplomat and financier. He became the president of the second United States Bank. In retirement, he helped establish Girard College in Philadelphia. His Greek Revival country manor Andalusia is now a historic house museum open to the public.
Independent Treasury The reenactment of the independent treasy system helped in the solution of domestic financial problems. It was set up by government to handle funds ? brainchild of Martin Van Buren.
Bank War The struggle between President Jackson and Micholas Biddle over the continued existence of the only national banking instutution in the nation and during the second quarter of the 19th century. The first Bank of the U.S., chartered in1791 over the objections of Thomas Jefferson, ceased in 1811 when Jeffersonian Republicans refused to pass a new charter. In 1816 the second Bank was created, with a 20-year charter.
Abolitionism The idea to eliminate slavery.
Fouerism a system for reorganiziong society into cooperative communities of small self-sustaining groups.
Alamo The site of the most famous battle in Texan War for independence. The Texans lost and those left surviving were ordering to be executed by Santa Anna. The battle cry, "Remember the Alamo!" was then created.
Free Soil Party 1848-54. Minor but influential political party in pre-Civil War period that opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories. Fearful of expanding slave power, David Wilmot introduced into Congress his famous Wilmot Proviso.
Sam Houston 1793-1863. American statesman and military commander, led the fight for Texas independence from Mexico. He captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign treaty papers.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Signed in the city of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the treaty was signed to end the Mexican War on Feb. 2, 1848.
Popular sovereignty the right of territorial inhabitants applying for statehood to determine whether their state would or would not sanction slavery. This principle of self-determination became party of the compromise measures of 1850 and of the Kansas-Nebraska act of 1854.
Uncle Tom's Cabin A novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. A forceful indictment of slavery and one of the most powerful novels of its kind in American literature.
Bleeding Kansas conflict in Kansas Territory between antislavery free staters and proslavery groups. Border Ruffians conducted systematic raids into Kansas during this time. John Brown is known for his bloody reprisal at Pottawatomie Creek.
Freeport Doctrine During the Lincoln-Douglas debate, Douglas's opinion on slavery was shown. His views on popular sovereignty came out but he later he rejects the Lecompton's Constitution. He argued that the people of any territory could keep slavery out of it by refusing to pass laws allowing it.
Homestead Act Provided 160 acres of public land free of charge to anyone either 21 years of age or the head of a family, a citizen of person who had filed for citizenship, who had lived on and cultivated the land for at least five years.
Edwin Stanton US secretary of war under A. Lincoln.
Emancipation Proclamation Proclamation issued by Lincoln declaring that all "slaves within any State, or designated part of a state then in rebellion, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free."
Robert E. Lee 1807-70. Brilliant confederate general, whose military genius was probably the greatest single factor in keeping the Confederacy alive through the four years of the Civil War.
Constitution Convention Held in Pennsylvania, originally intended to revise the Articles of Confederation and they ended up drafting a new Constitution which is still used today.
Federalist Papers always signed by Publius (public). 85 essays designed to explain the constitution, wrote by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.
Bank of the U.S. 1816-36. Hamilton fought Jefferson to start a national bank. It was important because all the individual state banks issued their own banknotes resulted naturally in a highly inefficient currency mechanims.
Jay Treaty- 1794 John Jay was sent to England for negotations but Hamilton betrayed US? bargaining strategy to England ? written to resolve the Treaty of Paris.
Barbary Pirates pirates of the coast of North Africa interfering with American commerce ? caused, ?a million for defense but not 1 cent for tribute?
Deism a rational religious philosphy that flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries, particularly in England. A belief in which one relies on reason rather than revelation, and a science rather than the Bible
Albert Gallatin 1761-1849. American statesman and financial expert. An immigrant, he worked his way up to become the secretary of state, he helped negotiate the Treaty of Ghent.
Orders-in-Council The best known were issued in November and December 1807, which imposed a blockade on Napoleonic Europe by the British and, in response, the decree by which the French might seize any neutral ship that complied with British regulations.
Daniel Webster 1782-1852. American lawyer and statesman. He was an abolitionist, senator, eloquent speaker, helped resolve many political disputes between the North and South.
Marbury v. Madison The case in which the supreme court established that it was it's duty to determine constitutionality. This precedent-setting power of judicial review was not exercised again to hold an act of Congress unconstitutional until Dred Scott.
Monroe Doctrine statement of U.S. policy on the activites and rights of European powers in the western hemisphere, made by President Monroe in his seventh annual address to the U.S. Congress on Dec. 2, 1823. It rephrased Britain?s bi-lateral proposal stating that the US would not permit and European nation to interfere in the West.
Era of Good Feelings Time of peace during Monroe's presidency. This was a misnomer because there were many divisive issues including tarriffs, the banks, internal improvements, and the sale of public lands.
McCulloch vs. Maryland 1819. Concerned whether or not Congress was authorized to charter a national bank. It was determined that Congress has not only specifically granted Constitutional powers but implied powers, as well.
Cumberland Road National road, extending for nearly 1300 km from Cumberland, MD, to Vandalia, IL. Now part of U.S. Highway 40, this road was important in opening the West and Southwest to settlement from the East.
Panic of 1819 paralyzing economic panic descended. Brought deflation, depression, bankruptcies bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded prison. Caused by overspeculation of frontier lands.
Missouri Compromise allowed Missouri to be entered as a slave states, Maine to be entered as a free state, other Southern states to be entered as slave states, and all Northern states north of 36 degrees 30" to be entered as free states.
Corrupt Bargain Clay was cutout of the election of 1824 and he worked behind the scenes to get New York to vote for Adams. Adams won and appointed Clay as Secretary of State (everyone who became president had served this position). Jackson made news of this and called it a corrupt bargain. Before the cutting of Clay from the election, he was leading the election race.
Peggy Eaton Affair event in which Peggy was accused of adultery and cast out from Washington society ? Jackson tried to help and stand up for her
Maysville Road Veto In 1830, the roads in Kentucky lay unfinished. Andrew Jackson vetoed a bill that would have made improvements on these roads because it used federal money and Henry Clay supported it.
Nullification Ordinance alleged right that a state could nullify federal laws due to the federal governments existence because of the states? compact (states created the government).
Roger B. Taney 1777-1864. American jurist and 5th chief justice of the U.S., well known for his controversial decision in the Dred Scott case.
Specie Circular July 11, 1836. An executive order issued by President Andrew Jackson requiring that payment for the purchase of public lands be made exclusively in gold or silver. In an effort to curb excessive land speculation to squash thhe enormous growth of paper money in circulation, Jackson directed the Treasury Department to accept only specie as payment for government owned land.
"Spoils System" It is the practice of making appointments to a political office and of giving employment in the public service to those whom have been advantageous to the public. It was favoritism for those who had done public service.
Hudson River School First group of landscape painters to emerge in the U.S. after independence from Great Britain, flourished between 1820 and 1880. Many of the artists associated with the group lived and painted in the Catskill Mountains region of New York along the Hudson River.
Mormons a member of any of several denominations and sects, the largest of which is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that trace their religion founded by Joseph Smith in the United States in 1830.
Seneca Falls Convention Assembly held on July 19-20, 1848 at Senenca Falls, NY, that launched the woman suffrage movement in the United States. Seneca Falls was the home of Elizabeth Stanton, who, along with Lucretia Mott, conceived and direction the convention
Oregon Trail overland pioneer route to the northwestern U.S. It was about 3200 km long and extended from Independence, Mo, to the Columbia River in Oregon.
Know-Nothing Party (1849-1860) ? secret society that discriminated against immigrants and Roman Catholics ? played upon fears of the back country farmers of immigrant population cities. When asked about the party, they said they "knew nothing."
Texas Question-Should the U.S. take Texas and support the American fight there even though they promised to obey the Mexican government when they went there? Many favored the Texans because of Manifest Destiny.
Harper's Ferry town ? tourist center ? founded by Robert Harper ? operated a armory and ferry ? assisted US in War of 1812 and Civil War.
Ostend Manifesto title of a document drawn by James Buchanan on Oct 9. 1854. The U.S. demanded that Spain sell Cuba. If they refused, it implied that the U.S. would use force to seize it.
Sumner-Brooks Affair Sumner severely criticized the senator from South Carolina, Andrew Butler. Two days later he was caned in the Senate chamber by Butler's nephew, Preston Brooks, a member of the House, also from South Carolina. Severely injured, Sumner was absent from the Senate for several years.
"Copperheads?-name popularly applied during the American Civil War to Northern members of the Demoratic party. They were partisans who obstructed the war effort. They advocated compromise with the Confederate states.
13th Amendment - After the Civil War the slaves freed by the Emancipation Proclamation would have risked re-enslavement but Lincoln play a large part in adopting this amendment which abolished slavery.
Gettysburg-battle fought on July 1-3, 1863. Considered by most military historians to be the turning point in the American Civil War. The union army, number 85,000, decisively beat the Confederate army under General Lee, which had 75,000 troops. It destroyed the South's offensive capabilities.
Pacific Railway Act 1862, 1864. Two measures that provided federal subsidies in land and loans for the construction of a transcontinental railroad across the United States.
Crop-Lien System a legal claim that one person has on the property of another for the security of debt. The main type of Lien are common law liens and statutory liens. A general Lien gives the holder the right to property other than that which is the basis of the debt due, like sharecropping.
14th Amendment civil rights for ex-slaves, settlement after the Civil War.
Darwin's Theory Theory of Natural Selection. He formed the idea that species change and those that fit the best into their environment survive.
Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 court battle that declared that "separate but equal" facilities were allowable under the Constitution.
Haymarket Riot confrontation between police and protesters in Haymarket Square in Chicago. A strike was in progress at the McCormick repear works in Chicago, and the previous day several men had been shot by the police during a riot at the plant. A meeting was called at Haymarket square as a protest against police violence, another gun battle ensued.
Ku Klux Klan a secret terrorist organization that originated in the southern states during the period of Reconstruction following the Civil War. They are dedicated to the harassment of minorities--blacks, Catholics, Jews.
W.E.B. DuBois American sociologist, the most important black protest leader in the U.S. during the first half of the 20th century. He shared in the creation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and edited Crisis, its magazine, from 1910-1934. Late in life he became identified with Communist causes.
Charles Pillsbury 1842-1899. American businessman, a small flour mill in Minneapolis and developed it into the largest flour producer in the world (C.A. Pillsbury &Co.); sold mills to English syndicate.
James Fiske 183401872. American financier. Founded brokerage house Fisk & Belen. Made a fortune in stock manipulations that ruined the Erie Railroad; cooperated with Drew and Jay Gould to raise the price of gold, reaping a fortune for themselves but causing countrywide depression and loss of millions to others; attempted to corner the gold market and failed when pres. Grant released government gold.
Wabash Case Supreme Court decreed that individual states had no right to regulate interstate commerce. Led to the passing of an act that prohibited rebates and pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly.
National Labor Union the NLU began in 1866 with a convention in Baltimore, called to organize skilled and unskilled laborers, farmers, and reformers into a coalition that would pressure Congress to pass a law limiting the workday to eight hours.
Social Gospel a liberal movement in American Protestantism, prominent in the late 19th century, which sought to apply Christian principles to a variety of social problems engendered by industrialization. Its founders and leaders included the clergymen Washington Gladden and Walter Rauschenbusch, who tried to counteract the efforts of expanding capitalism by teaching religion and human dignity to the working class.
Hull House American social settlement, founded in 1889 in Chicago by the social reformer, Jane Adams and her associates. It was established primarily as a welfare agency for needy families and also to combat juvenile delinquency by providing recreational facilities for children living in the slums.
"Trust" legal term for monopoly. A group of individuals trying to control a particular business.
"Rebate" American Farmer, farmers agreed to use shipping line if those lines would lower their price
Oliver H. Kelley 1826-1913. American agricultural organizer. An organizer and secretary of National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry; zealous in promiting its growth; wrote Origin and Progress of the Patrons of Husbandry.
Sherman Anti-trust Act-basic federal enactment regulating the operations of corporate trusts, passed by the U.S. Congress in July 1890. The act declared illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restrant of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations."
Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1835-1899. American politician. Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Missouri. Leader of congressional free silver bloc of Democratic Party; coauthor of Bland-Allison Act and remonetizing silver. Deafed by W. J. Bryan for Presidential nomination.
Samuel Gompers pres. of the American Federation of Labor, believed a healthy open relationship between management staff and work force would prevent strikes and benefit everyone
"Molly Maguires? -secret society formed about 1854 by the Irish coal miners of the anthracite regions of Pennsylvania. It was organized for the planning and execution of a concerted campaign of physical violence against those whom the miners considerd their oppressors, including the mineowners, their superintendents, and state and municipal police under the virtual control of the mineowners.
George Washington Plunkitt known for a famous series of newspaper interviews; a political "boss" in the Tammany Hall "machine"; candidly described his ethical and political principles.
McKinley Tariff Twenty-fifth president of the U.S.; this tariff promoted tariff protectionism and opposed free silver. It committed the country to the gold standard and promoted business confidence
Gilded Age period of gross materialism and blatant political corruption in U.S. history during the 1870s that gave rise to important novels of social and political criticism. The period takes its name from the earliest of these, The Gilded Age, by Mark Twain with Charles Dudley Warner.
Greenbacks members of the Greenback Labor party. Farmers found a vent for their grievances here. In 1878 they election 14 members to Congress and in the election of 1880 they ran Weaver for president.
"Stalwarts" A faction of the Republican Party that opposed the civil-service reform policies of President Hayes and sought unsuccessfully a third presidential term for Ulysses Grant. They vied with the generally more liberal Half-Breeds for control of the party in the 1870s and 1880s.
10% Plan Lincoln proclaimed this in 1863 that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when 10% of its voters had taken oaths of allegiance to the U.S. and pledged to abide by emancipation.
Tenure of Office Act A law forbidding the president to remove civil officers without senatorial consent. The law was possed over Pres. Johnson's veto by Radical Republicans in Congress in their struggle to wrest control of Reconstruction from Johnson.
Southern Strategy in Civil War - Main objective was to capture Washington and then to negotiate for peace and return the capital to the Union and be left alone as an independent nation. If they had kept with this plan they would have won. They just wanted to get the Union out of their territories, they did not want to attack the Union.
Morill Land Grant land-grant college, any of numerous American institutions of higher learning that were established under the first Morrill Act (1862). This act was passed by the U.S. Congress and was named for the act's sponsor, Vermont congressman Justin Smith Morill.
15th Amendment Male blacks allowed to vote- cannot discriminate against race, color, or previous servitude.
Sharecropping popular in SE U.S. from the end of the Civil War until widespread mechanization of the production of cotton and tobacco made the system unprofitable. By this system, the sharecropper and their family provided their labor in return for a share in the profits from the crop they produced. The owner of the land provided not only the land but equipment, animals, seed and living accommodations for the sharecropper and family.
Social Darwinism the theory that both people and entire societies follow Darwin?s theories of evolution and natural selection among the society.
Comstock Lode metal-yielding vein rich in gold in silver located in Nevada - a find of over 340 million dollars in silver and gold was unearthed.
Black Codes these were brought into effect under the Southern governments after the Civil War they listed things that blacks were not allowed to do.
Jim Crowism - it is a legislation passed in 1865 meant to further segregate different races. It came to become a term that came to be derogatory epithet for blacks and a designation for their segregated life.
Gustavus Swift 1839-1903. American meat packer. He commissioned the development of the refrigerator car; made the first shipment of dressed beef to the eastern market; and profited by utilization of by-products to make oleomargarine, soap, glue, fertilizer, etc. He was the leading man in meat industry whose business did well with the coming of the Meat Trust.
George Pullman 1831-97. American inventor. Originally trained as a cabinetmaker, he became a building contractor in Chicago in 1855. In 1863 he designed the first modern railroad sleeping car and patented his innovations folding upper berths and seats that could extent into lower berths. He developed a monopoly.
Jay Gould 1836-1892. American financier. Engaged in stock market manipulation of railroad securities. Associated with James Fisk and Daniel Drew in a struggle against Cornelius Vanderbilt for control of Erie Railroad, looted the Erie's treasury. Attempted to corner gold, causing panic of Black Friday.
William M. Tweed 1823-1878. American politician. He gained absolute power of Tammany Hall (1868) and controlled nominations and patronage. Became head of a group of New York City politicians known as the Tweed Ring, which gained control of New York City finances and swindled the treasury of between 30 and 200 million dollars; exposed by Harper's Weekly (with powerful cartoons by Thomas Nast).
Homestead Steel Strike-Strike in which 300 detectives were brought into put the strike down but were forced to surrender by the factory workers, hurt Republicans in 1892 election.
John D. Rockefeller -1839-1937. American industrialist. By 1878 Rockefeller had control of 90 percent of the oil refineries in the U.S. and soon afterward a virtual monopoly of the marketing facilities. In 1882 he formed the Standard Oil Trust. This, the first corporate trust, was declared an illegal monopoly and ordered dissolved by the Ohio Supreme Court. At its peak, Rockefeller's personal fortune was estimated at almost $1 billion. The total amount of his philanthropic contributions was about $550 million.
"Pool" among other meanings, a trust pool is synonymous with a monopoly.
U.S. v. E.C. Knight Co. legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court first interpreted the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. E.C. Knight Co. owned American Sugar Refining Company who owned a virtual monopoly of sugar refining in the U.S., controlling 98% of the industry. The court ruled 8 to 1 against the government, declaring that manufacturing was a local activity not subject to congressional regulation of interstate commerce.
Knights of Labor American Labor union, originally established as a secret fraternal order. It is notable in U.S. labor history as the first organization of workers to advocate the inclusion in one union of all workers in the country.
American Federation of Labor Founded in Columbus, Ohio in 1886, during a period of widespread strikes by workers seeking an 8-hour work day. Its primary objectives were unionization of workers, support of legislation beneficial to labor, reduction of working hours, and improvement of working conditions and wages.
Eugene V. Debs 1855-1926. American socialist leader, pacifist, labor organizer, and Socialist candidate for U.S. president five times. President of the American Railway Union. Under his leadership the union won an important strike on the Great Northern Railway.
William J. Bryan 1860-1925. American political leader, editor, and lecturer, known for his spellbinding oratory. He became a leader of the movement for the unlimited coinage of silver. At the Democratic National Convention of 1896 he delivered his most famous speech, generally known as the "cross of gold" speech, in behalf of the bimetallic theory. His last years were devoted largely to activities in behalf of the American religious movement known as fundamentalist.
Wilson-Gorman Tariff 1894. Imposed a direct tax on the incomes of American citizens and corporations, thus declaring the federal income tax unconstitutional. The decision was unsettled in 1913 by ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the federal Constitution, giving Congress the power "to pay and collect taxes on incomes."
"Half-Breeds" faction of Republican party during the 1870's and 80's when infighting beset, who flirted coyly with civil reform service. Main fight with the Stalwarts was who should grasp the ladle that dished out the spoils. Champion was James G. Blaine.
Pendelton Act Jan. 16, 1883. Landmark U.S. legislation establishing the tradition and mechanism of permanent federal employment based on merit rather than on political party affiliation (spoils system). More than 90 percent of federal employees by 1980 were protected by the act.
Granger Movement-agrarian movement in the U.S., initiated shortly after the American Civil War with the aim of improving the social, economic, and political status of farmers. The even that marked the beginning of the granger movement was the formation, in 1867, of Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry.
Wade-Davis Bill 1864. Unsuccessful attempt by Radical Republicans and others in the U.S. Congress to set Reconstruction policy before the end of the Civil War. The bill provided for the appointment of provisional military governors in the seceded states. President Lincoln's pocket veto of the bill presaged the struggle that was to take place after the war between President Johnson and the Radical Republicans in Congress.
Northern Strategy in Civil War 1. Blockades of the South to prevent trade with foreign countries especially England. 2. Control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans thus dividing the South. #. The capture of Richmond, the Confederate capital thus forcing a surrender.
Compromise of 1877 Released election deadlock between Hays and Tilden- Democrat Hays takes office in return for removal of his troops. Republicans get support for bill subsidizing the Texas and Pacific Railroad.
Little Big Horn commonly known as Custer's Last Stand, American military engagement fought on Jun 25, 1876, in what is now Montana. Custer met with the Indians and lost.
Freedman's Bureau school for a time after the Civil War for blacks.
Booker T. Washington 1856-1915. American educator, who urged blacks to attempt to uplift themselves through education attainments and economic advancement. Appointed organizer and principal of a black normal school in Tuskegee, ala. He urged blacks to accept their inferior social position for the present and to strive to raise themselves through vocational training and economic self-reliance. Many whites and blacks accepted Washington as the chief spokesperson of the American black.
Philip Armour1832-1901. American meat packer. In 1863 he became head of the pork-packing firm of Armour, Pankington & Co. He acquired a large interest in the grain business belonging to his brother Herman Armour. He was a pioneer in the use of refrigeration and in the canning of meat. In 1892 he founded and endowed the Armour Institute of Technology in Chicago.
Cornelius Vanderbilt 1794-1877. American industrialist. He entered the transportation business at the age of 16 when he established a freight-and-passenger ferry service between Staten Island and Manhattan. Later, he invested in railroads. When he died he was estimated to be worth over $100 million.
Munn v. Illinois 1877. Case in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the power of government to regulate private industries. It was developed as a result of the Illinois legislature?s responding in 1871 to pressure from the National Grange, an association of farmers, by setting maximum rates that proviate companies could charge for the storage and transport of agricultural products.
Nativism a policy of favoring native inhabitants as opposed to immigrants.
Acres of Diamonds Lecture given by Russel Herman Conwell; given no less than 6,000 times. The theme of the lecture was that everyone had an opportunity to get rich and then could use their money to help others. ?Keep clean, fight hard, pick your openings judiciously, and have your eyes forever fixed on the heights toward which you are headed,? was his simple formula for success and the central emphasis of his preaching.
Populist Party Through the 1880s local political action groups known as Farmers? Alliances sprang up among Middle Westerners and Southerners. In 1892 their leaders organized the Populist, or People?, Party. They demanded an increase in the circulating currency (to be achieved by the unlimited coinage of silver), a graduated income tax, government ownership of the railroads, a tariff for revenue only, and the direct election of U.S. senators. They also demanded other measures designed to strengthen political democracy and give farmers economic parity with business and industry.
Interstate Commerce Act-federal law comprising a number of congressional enactments that provide for the regulation by the U.S. government of domestic surface transportation in interstate commerce. The first of these congressional enactments created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and established reasonable and just rates.
Bland-Allison Act Remonetizing silver. Allowed the government to purchase a set amount of silver monthly to coin
Henry Cabot Lodge 1850-1924. American statesman who led the opposition to U.S. membership in the League of Nations after World War I. During the Spanish-American War he gave his full support to the policies of President William McKinley.
Coxey?s Army A group of unemployed went to Washington, D.C. to protest unemployment and demonstrate in fav
Study this list and you will do well- note some of these may be incorrect (about 3 or 4 that I know of) Please forgive me.. otherwise enjoy - it helped me a LOT.
...and DO NOT COPY WORD FOR WORD... please paraphrase anything you find here.
1607- 1763
1. Indentured servants- People who promised lives as servants in order to get to the colonies. Worked for a certain amount of time so to pay off their debt. Eventually led to slavery.
2. Trade and Navigation Acts- Navigation Acts 1650"'"s ; Britain seeks to regulate colonial trade (Policy of Salutary Neglect) – Oliver Cromwell makes Acts to promote British shipbuilding industry and increase revenue. Aimed at rival Dutch shippers trying to get into American carrying trade. Restricted commerce to and from colonies to English vessels.
3. Mayflower Compact- was a constitution. Agreement to form crude gov and submit to will of majority under regulations agreed on.
4. Roger Williams- founded Rhode Island Baptist Church 1635 – Was extreme Separatist. Wanted to break w/ corrupt Church of England completely. Challenged legality of colonies charter. Denied authority of civil gov to regulate religious behavior. Banished him. Fled to RI. Established complete freedom of religion. Simple manhood suffrage.
5. Great Puritan Migration- –(two decades or so after 1620) 1)Lots of puritans came, 2) Settlers need provisions, 3) Yankee trader came about – (merchants that take products of New England and sell them around the world), 4) New England community has unity of feeling, religious devotion, communitarianism, economic diversity, 5) Both subsistence farming, a carrying trade (taking to other place to sell), and mercantile trade
6. New England Confederation- in 1643- four colonies banded together to form this. Purpose was defense against foes or potential foes, (Indians, French, and Dutch); also intercolonial probs (runaway servants, criminals who fled from one colony to another) each member colony had two votes. Exclusive Puritan club. Bay Colony, Plymouth, New Haven, and valley settlements in CT; first notable milestone toward colonial unity.
7. Freedom of Consciences- aka the freedom of religion/faith. Freedom to follow the inner voice inside you.
8. Jonathan Edwards- First ignited in Northampton, Mass. by Jonathan Edwards (pastor). Folly of believing in salvation through good works; affirmed need for complete dependence on God"'"s grace. '"'Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God'"'- famous sermons.
9. Halfway Covenant- Troubled ministers saw decline in conversions made this. It offered partial membership rights to ppl not yet converted. Erased distinction b/w '"'elect'"' and other member of society.
10. Salem Witch Trials- 1692-93- Girls in Mass claimed to be bewitched by older women. 19 hanged; 1 pressed to death. PPl trying to find a scapegoat for social resentments
11. '"'City on a Hill'"'- In "A Model of Christian Charity," a sermon John Winthrop preached during voyage to America, the Mass govn emphasized that purpose of their voyage to America was to increase the body of Christ and to preserve themselves and their children from the corruption of this evil world. '"'For we must Consider that we shall be as a City upon a Hill, the eyes of all people are upon us.'"'
12. William Penn-launched colony. Quaker believer. Hoped to experiment w/ liberal ideas in gov and make a profit. Make asylum for hated Quakers; Pennsylvania founded 1682
13. Proprietary, royal, charter colonies- proprietary= founded by a company or individual and were controlled by the proprietor. charter= founded by a gov, charter granted to a company or a group of people. The British gov had some control over charter colonies. royal (or crown)- were formed by the king, so the gov had total control over them.
14. Peter Zenger Trial- John Peter Zenger (publisher of Weekly Journal) acquitted of libel in 1734. Freedom of Press assured - Zenger"'"s newspaper assailed corrupt royal governor. Hauled into court for seditious libel. Argued had printed truth. Jurors defied bewigged judges. Verdict= not guilty Achievement for Freedom.
15. King Philip"'"s War- (Metacom) War 1675-76 – Made assaults on English villages throughout NE. Was captured. Slowed westward march of English settlement. Reduced numbers; dispirited Indians.
16. George Whitefield- 1738- George Whitefield (English parson) different style of evangelical preaching. Voice boomed! Toured the colonies; message of human helplessness and divine omnipotence.
17. Great Awakening- 1730"'"s and 40"'"s - Religion less fervid in early 18th century; '"'Dead dogs'"' preachers; Liberal ideas challenged old-time religion; Key Ppl = Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield
18. Thomas Hobbes- philosopher wrote The Leviathan
19. Mercantilism- Mercantilism is a theory that is based on the fact that a country"'"s wealth is measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury. Using the mercantilism theory, a country exports more than it imports to gain more gold and silver; England used this theory w/ it"'"s various colonial endevours.
20. Bacon"'"s Rebellion- 1676 in Virginia - freemen frustrated by broken hopes of getting land and failure to find women to marry. 1,000 Virginians broke out. Led by planter, Nathaniel Bacon. Many had been forced into backcountry in search for land. Hated Gov. Berkeley"'"s friendly treatment of Indians. Put torch to capital. Killed Indians
21. Harvard College- 1636 – founded in Cambridge, Mass- for Congregational clergymen
22. Middle Passage- the journey of slave trading ships from Africa across the Atlantic
23. Phyllis Wheatly- poet (c. 1753-1784), slave girl brought to Boston at age 8 and never formally educated. Taken to England when 20, she published a book of verse and wrote other published poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope.
24. Puritans- Purify Church of England. Wanted to create a Holy Bible Common Wealth; Want to get RID of ills of society. Pilgrims extreme Puritans
25. Pilgrims/Separatists- Pilgrims were extreme Puritans. Separatists wanted to totally cut themselves from the Church of England; Mayflower ppl
26. House of Burgesses- Virginia House of Burgesses makes their committee permanent – Patrick Henry denounces British dictatorship - Intercolonial comities next logical step. Virginia led way. Created body as a standing committee of the House of Burgesses. Central committee where could exchange ideas and information w/ other colonies.
27. Anne Hutchinson- Anne Hutchinson believed that a holy life was no sure sign of salvation and that the truly saved need not bother to obey the law of either God or man. This assertion was known as antinomianism (against the law). She was banished to Rhode Island.
28. William Bradford- William Bradford was chosen governor of pilgrims in Mass thirty times, was afraid non-Puritan settlers might corrupt his godly experiment
29. French and Indian War- 1754-1763 - Ohio Valley- great land for French and British. Both willing to Fight for. French and Indians were allies. British has victory. Ends w/ Treaty of Paris 1763
30. John Locke- had prevailing theory that all knowledge comes to the mind through the senses.
31. Iroquois Confederacy- The Iroquois Confederacy bounded five Indian nations- the Mohawk, the Oneidas, the Onandagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. It was founded in the late 1500s by two leaders, Deganawidah and Hiawatha. It vied initially with neighboring Indians for territorial supremacy, then w/ the French, English, and Dutch for control of the fur trade
32. Headright system- Granting large amount of land to anyone who brought over a certain amount of colonists. Used first in Virginia and Baltimore to attract people to small pop. colonies
33. Salutary Neglect- Britain left the colonies alone to govern themselves b/c of issues in their own country.
34. Albany Plan- Albany Congress = 1754- British government summoned intercolonial congress to Albany, New York. Immediate purpose= keep the scalping knives of Iroquois tribes loyal to the British. Longer-range= achieve greater colonial unity= common defense against France. Iroquois refuse to help British colonists, Franklin proposes Colonial unification – rejected (Plan of Union in what he called a Grand Council) – Albany delegates adopted the plane, but individual colonies and London gov. rejected it. Made famous snake Cartoon
35. James Oglethorpe- he was one of the strongest founders of Georgia. He repelled Spanish attacks.
1763 – 1775
1. Proclamation of 1763- Prohibited settlement beyond Appalachians. (Was to work out the Indian problem fairly, prevent eruption like Pontiac"'"s). Americans angered. Clogged westward trails in response.
2. Thomas Paine/Common Sense- (January, 1776) - most influential pamphlets written. Radical Thomas Paine. Best-seller. '"'Why not throw off the cloak of inconsistency?'"' Why should tiny England control vast America?
3. Crisis Papers- by Thomas Paine about the American Revolution
4. Stamp Act Congress- largely ignored in England. Brought together leaders from the different and rival colonies. Step toward intercolonial unity
5. Olive Branch Petition- professed American loyalty to crown; begged king to prevent further hostilities. After Bunker Hill- King slammed door on reconciliation.
6. Pontiac"'"s Rebellion- Pontiac"'"s War - Ottawa chief Pontiac in 1763 led violent campaign to drive British out of Ohio Valley. Whites swiftly, cruelly retaliated
7. Quartering Act- 1765 - required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops
8. Townshend Acts- 1767 - Regulations. Light import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. Indirect customs duty payable at American ports.
9. Boston Tea Party- Tea Party – by Son"'"s of Liberty- white townsfolk, disguised as Indians, boarded tea ships, dumped tea into Boston harbor. In reaction to Tea Act 1773
10. Coercive/Intolerable Acts- 1774- Port of Boston closed until damages paid- Boston Port Act- closed tea-stained harbor until damages paid and order assured. Chartered rights of colonial Mass. swept away; Resistance of British officials in Massachusetts; Temporary suspension of Town meetings; New Quartering Act
11. Loyalists/Tories- Tories-American who opposed war (Loyalists)- Loyalists were known as Tories after dominant political factions in England
12. Sons of Liberty- Enforced nonimportation agreements against violators w/ tar and feathers.
13. First/Second Continental Congress- First Continental Congress 1774 - Ways of redressing colonial grievances. A consultative body- convention. John Adams= stellar role. Congress drew up dignified papers. Declaration of Rights and appeals to British American colonies, to king, and to British ppl; Second Continental Congress Convenes (May, 1775) - All 13 colonies there. Adopted measured to raise money and create an army and navy. Desire to continue fighting in hope that king and Parliament consent to redress of grievances. Drafted new appeals- rejected; Olive Branch petition, Continental Army Created- Washington named Commander
14. Boston Massacre- 1770 - British officials landed 2 regiments of troops in Boston in 1768. Clash= 60 townspeople vs. 10 redcoats. Troops opened fire and killed 11 citizens. Both sides to some degree to blame
15. Paxton Boys- the armed march of the Paxton Boys on Philly in 1764. Scots-Irish. Protesting the Quaker oligarchy"'"s lenient policy toward the Indians.
16. Tea Act- 1773 – falls under Townshend revenues used to pay salaries of royal governors and judges in America. When Townsend repealed, tea act remained
17. Battle of Saratoga- (October, 1777) - American militiamen swarmed around. Series of Engagements- British army was trapped Ranks high among decisive battles. Revived colonial cause
18. '"'No Taxation without Representation'"'- means can not tax the ppl without representation of the ppl in Britain; Congress – no taxation without representation – Congress drew up statement of their rights and grievances and beseeched King and Parliament to repeal.
19. Stamp Act- 1765 - raise revenues to support new military force. Mandated use of stamped paper certifying payment of tax. Required on fifty trade items as well as certain commercial and legal documents.
20. non-importation agreements- unofficial agreement in America for not importing British goods. Stride toward Union. Sons and daughters of Liberty formed. They Enforced nonimportation agreements against violators w/ tar and feathers.
21. virtual representation- a representative is not elected by his constituents, but he resembles them in his political beliefs and goals (actual= rep elected by his peers)
22. Gaspee Affair- June, 1772- the British ship the Gaspee was near US coast. When British left the ship, colonials burned it. They got sent to GB for trial.
23. Sugar Act 1764- 1764 - for raising tax revenue in colonies for crown. Increased duty on foreign sugar imported from West Indies. Protest from colonials= duties lowered substantially.
1775 – 1825
1. Monroe Doctrine- late 1823 Adams won Monroe over to way of thinking. Pres, in regular annual message to Congress, incorporated stern warning to European powers. 2 basic features: 1) noncolonization 2) nonintervention
2. Embargo Act 1807- Jeff proposed. Congress passed Embargo Act late 1807. Forbade export of all goods from US, whether in American or in foreign ships. Compromise b/w submission and shooting
3. Louisiana Purchase- Napoleon sells all of Louisiana for $15 million – No need for Lousianna. was about to end 20 month lull in deadly conflict w/ Britain. B/c British controlled seas, feared he might forced to make them gift of Lou. Hoped US, strengthened by Lou, one day be military and naval power and hurt British in New World. During Jefferson Presidency
4. Tecumseh- (and the Prophet) 2 Shawnee Brothers concluded if onrushing whites to be stopped, time come. Began to weld confederacy of all tribes east of Mississippi. Was last desperate attempt to realize dream of large-scale pan-Indian alliance against whites.
5. Jay Treaty- John perceived French could not satisfy the conflicting ambitions of both Americans and Spaniards. Saw signs saying Paris Foreign Office about to betray America"'"s trans-Allegheny interests to satisfy those of Spain. Secretly made separate overtures to London. Came to terms w/ Americans. Preliminary treaty of peace signed in 1782- final peace, the next year.
6. Whiskey Rebellion- High excise tax= harsh on pioneer folk. Was medium of exchange. Army 13 thousand rallied. Troops reached hills- no insurrection. '"'Whiskey Boys'"' scared, dispersed, or captured. (Brutally) Wash."'"s gov strengthened, commanded new respect.
7. Gabriel Prosser"'"s Rebellion- Richmond, Virginia, foiled by informers.
8. Annapolis Convention- to review what could be done about the country"'"s inability to overcome critical problems, five states sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, After discussing ways to improve commercial relations among the states, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton persuaded the others that another convention should be held in Philly for purpose of revising the Articles of Confed.
9. Orders in Council- (England"'"s Orders in Council) - Edicts closed ports under French continental control to foreign shipping, including American, unless vessels first stopped at British port.
10. Hartford Convention- (December, 1814) - when capture of New Orleans seems imminent. Mass, issued call for convention. States of Mass, Conn, and RI= full delegations, NH, Vermont sent partial rep. 26 men- secrecy for three weeks to discuss grievances and seek redress for wrongs.
11. American Colonization Society- 1817 - focused on moving blacks back to Africa; Liberia founded 1822 - established for former slaves. 15,000 freed blacks moved there over 4 decades.
12. republicanism/democracy- republican form or system of gov; (republic- a political order whose head of state is not a monarch); democracy- government by the people for the people. (social/political equality)
13. interchangeable parts- principle widely adopted by 1850; Eli Whitney first thought of this for mass production of muskets for US army. (identical parts are interchangeable)
14. Henry Clay- proposed compromise as California wanted admission and South threatening secession; 36° 30' N. latitude; Maine admitted as free state; American System 1816 - plan of Henry Clay for developing profitable home market. System had 3 main parts: protectionism, publicly subsidized transportation (vetoed by Madison), 2nd Bank of the US.
15. Washington"'"s Farewell Address- published in newspaper late 1796. Warned: not to get involved in European affairs, against US making '"'permanent alliances'"' in foreign affairs, not to form political parties, to avoid sectionalism.
16. Connecticut (Great) Compromise- by Roger Sherman; Larger states representation by pop in House. Smaller states= equal representation in Senate. Each state have 2 senators. Big states, yielded more senators. Every tax bill or revenue measure must originate in House
17. Barbary Pirates- Pirate of North African Barbary States, were blackmailing and plundering merchant ships that went in Mediterranean. Declared war on US. Rose to challenge by dispatching infant navy to '"'shores of Tripoli'"'; 4 yrs of fighting, succeeded in extorting treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805. bargain price of $60,000- sum representing ransom payments for captured Americans.
18. Undeclared Naval War- French were furious w/ Jay"'"s treaty. Began to seize American merchant vessels, about 300 by mid 1797. Paris regime refused to receive America"'"s newly appointed envoy. Bloodshed confined to sea principally in West Indies. 1798-1800 2 years, US captured over 80 armed vessels, 100s US ships lost.
19. Treaty of Alliance 1778- France eager to inflame quarrel in America. Colonies Britain"'"s most valuable overseas possessions. Presumably cease to be front-rank power if didn"'"t have colonies. France might regain former position and prestige. France offered Americans treaty of alliance. Promised everything Britain offering- plus independence. Both allies bound themselves to wage war until US won freedom, until both agreed to terms w/ common foe.
20. Treaty of Paris 1783- American delegates Franklin, Jay, Henry Laurens, John Adams - Instructed to make no separated peace and to consult w/ French allies at all stages; Terms: American independence, Florida returned to Spain, American boundaries west to Mississippi River, north to Great Lakes, Tories (Loyalists) allowed to file legal suits to reclaim property. Jay secretly made treaty w/ Britain at same time (Jay"'"s Treaty)
21. Republican Motherhood- idea of the selfless devotion of a mother to her family cited as the model of proper republican behavior. Women new prestigious role as keepers of nation"'"s conscience.
22. Corrupt bargain- Jackson; Polled most pop votes, failed to win majority of electoral vote. Who"'"s Pres to be decided in House. Henry Clay (leader of house) and Adams- both nationalists, advocates of American System. Before final balloting in House, Clay met w/ Adams, assured him of his support. Adams won presidency
23. Loose/strict contructionism- Jefferson and states"'" rights disciples embraced theory of '"'strict'"'; Hamilton and Fed '"'loose'"' ; Hamilton= what not forbid, permitted; Jack=not permitted, forbid
24. Lewis and Clark- Expedition 1804-1806- Jeff. sent personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and young army officer, William Clark, to explore northern part of Lou. Purchase. Aided by Shoshoni woman Sacajawea yielded scientific observations, maps, knowledge of Indians in region, and stories.
25. Gibbons v Ogden- 1824 – federal government allowed to regulate interstate commerce - grew out an attempt by NY to grant to private '"'concern'"' monopoly of waterborne commerce b/w NY and NJ. Reminded state that Const. Conferred on Congress alone control of interstate commerce
26. Treaty of Ghent- (December, 1814) – During War of 1812; no gains, no losses; 5 American peacemakers to Belgian city of Ghent in 1814. Headed by puritanical John Quincy Adams, son John Adams; essentially a truce. Both sides agreed to stop fighting and restore conquered territory. No mention made of grievances for which American fought.
27. Land Ordinance of 1785- Congress sells land in Northwest Territory with proceeds to pay off national debt - Acreage sold and proceeds used to help pay off national debt. Vast area surveyed before sale and settlement. Divided into townships six miles square. Split into 35 sections one square mile each. 16th section of each township set aside to sold for public schools
28. Critical period- The Critical Period of American History (1888) a book by John Fiske; the young nation, buffeted by foreign threats and growing internal chaos, w/ only weak central gov saved by the adoption of more rigorous Constitution (the ultimate fulfillment of republic ideals) called the intro of the Constitution the "critical period" because the Constitution saved the nation from certain disaster under the Articles of Confederation.
29. XYZ Affair- 1797 - Adam"'"s envoys- reached Paris 1797- hoped meet Talleyrand, French foreign minister who appointed 3 go-betweens, X,Y, and Z- Demanded unneutral loan of 32 mill florins, plus bribe $250,000 for privilege of talking w/ Talleyrand. Terms intolerable
30. War Hawks- wanted seizure of Florida and Canada (Clay, Calhoun) - Recent elections swept away older men replaced w/ young, from South and West, youthful newcomers on fire for new war w/ old enemy. Not having conflict in own generation- war hawks wanted it. Southern expansionists- wanted Florida- (weakly held by Britain"'"s ally Spain) During War of 1812.
31. Cotton gin/Eli Whitney- Massachusetts-born Eli Whitney created the cotton gin (short for engine) that was 50 times more effective than handpicking. Thought he could relieve poverty of the South. The raising of cotton became highly profitable, and the demand for cotton strengthened the ties of slavery.
32. Articles of Confederation- 1781-1789 - inadequate for nation building. Less than 10 years after Rev. War- Articles replaced w/ new Constitution
33. Three-fifths Compromise- Should voteless slave count as person in apportioning direct taxes, and by representation in House? South=yes. North=no. Slave then counted as 3/5ths of person: 60% of slave could be counted, No prohibition on slavery for 20 years - Slave trade continue till end of 1807
34. Deism- deists relied on reason rather than revelation, science rather than Bible. Rejected concept of original sin, denied Christ"'"s divinity. Believed in a Supreme Beign who created universe and endowed human beings w/ capacity for oral behavior. Helped inspire spin-off- the Unitarian Faith.
35. Revolution of 1800- country divided (Jeff against strong gov; Hamil for) Adams, vs Jeff.. Jeff Won; Jeff, pres candidate, and Burr, vice-pres; Jefferson"'"s "Revolutionary" victory = peaceful and orderly transfer of power on basis of an election whose results all parties accepted.
36. Full funding/assumption- Hamilton"'"s Assumption Plan for debt restructuring and repayment – Assumption Bill - State debts- proper national obligation- been incurred in war for independence. Belief that assumption chain states tightly to '"'federal chariot.'"'
37. Virginia/New Jersey Plans- Great CT Compromise solved this
a. Virginia Plan – Federalism - '"'the large-state plan'"' pushed forward as framework of Constitution. Representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress- be based on population. Give larger states an advantage.
i. Introduced by Edmund Randolph and James Madison
ii. Three branches
b. New Jersey Plan - '"'the small-state plan'"' provided equal representation in unicameral Congress by states, regardless of size and population, under existing Articles.
i. William Patterson
ii. Unicameral Congress
38. Samuel Slater- '"'Father of the Factory System'"' in America. Skilled British mechanic of 21, attracted by bounties offered to English workers familiar w/ textile machines (since was secret); memorized plans for machinery, escaped in disguise to US, won backing of Moses Brown. Put into operation in 1791 first American machinery for spinning cotton thread.
39. Federalist/First American Party System- supported loose interpretation of Const, strong central gov, Pro-British foreign policy, large peacetime army and navy military policy, aid business, national bank, and tariffs for domestic policy, and supporters=northern businessmen, large landowners.
40. Benjamin Banneker- an architect of Washington DC
41. Haitian Rebellion- Haitian slave revolution led by Toussaint L"'"Ouverture in Santo Domingo 1801-1804 – Napoleon failed in efforts to conquer Santo Domingo, which Louisiana to serve as source of foodstuffs. Ex-slaves, led by Toussaint put up resistance broken. Then- islands 2nd line defense- mosquitoes w/ yellow fever, swept away thousands French troops.
42. Marbury v Madison- 1803 – Marbury one of midnight judges. Marshall dismissed suit, in ruling declared that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that Marbury tried to use as arguments was unconstitutional. Promoted contrary principles of '"'judicial review'"' idea that Supreme Court alone had last word on question of constitutionality
43. Bank of the United States- Hamilton created in 1791 - Proposed Powerful Private Intuition- gov major stockholder & in which federal Treasury deposit surplus monies. Central gov have convenient strongbox, federal funds stimulate business by remaining in circulation. Bank print urgently needed paper money, provided sound stable national currency. Federalists and Hamilton endorsed
44. Yeomen farmers- nonslaveholding, small landowning farmers.
45. Virginia-Kentucky Resolutions- Kentucky (1798) (Jefferson) and Virginia (Madison) (1799) Resolutions – In response to restrictive Sedition Act. Federalists argued ppl not states made original compact, was up to Supreme Court- not states- to nullify unconstitutional legislation passed by Congress. Practice, not specifically authorized by Constitution adopted by Supreme Court in 1803. Jeff for strict construction; Mad for loose. Who had right to decide constitutionality
46. Shay"'"s Rebellion- 1786 in Massachusetts - Impoverished backcountry farmers- War vets- losing farms through mortgage foreclosures, tax delinquencies. Led by Captain Daniel Shays; desperate debtors demanded cheap paper money, lighter taxes, suspension of property takeovers. Hundreds attempted to enforce demand
47. Northwest Ordinance- 1787 - related to governing of NW. Came to grips w/ problems how nation should deal w/ colonial ppls. Does as listed: Territory under national government authority, Petition for statehood when population reaches 60,000 settlers, Forbids slavery
48. Lowell/Walthan System/Lowell Girls- The Boston Associates had textile mill at Lowell, Mass as showplace factory. Workers almost all NE farm girls, supervised on and off job by matrons. Escorted to church from company boardinghouses, forbidden to form unions, disciplined and docile
49. Erie Canal- begun in 1817 under leadership of Governor DeWitt Clinton of New York. Completed 1825. Cost of shipping fell. Value of land along route skyrocketed, new cities blossomed. Industry in sate boomed, new profitability of farming in Old NW attacked immigrants.
50. Impressment- forcible enlistment of sailors- used by British on American sailors.
51. Declaration of Independence- Inspirational appeal needed to enlist other English colonies; invite assistance from foreign nations; rally resistance; Richard Henry Lee offers resolution (June, 1776) - moved '"'These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states…'"' Motion adopted July 2, 1776; Delegates accepts Declaration (July 4, 1776) - Passing= formal '"'declaration'"' of independence.
52. Missouri Compromise- 1819-20 - that Congress could forbid slavery in remaining territories. Area north except Miss. Forever closed to slavery; James Tallmadge proposal - Said no more slaves brought into Missouri, provided for gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there;Sen. Jesse Thomas made proposal; Henry Clay"'"s compromise solution – proposed compromise as California wanted admission and South threatening secession; 36° 30' N. latitude; Maine admitted as free state
53. Adams-Onis Treaty- (aka Florida Purchase Treaty 1819) - Spain ceded Florida, and shadowy Spanish claims to Oregon, in exchange for America"'"s abandonment of claims to Texas, soon to become part of independent Mexico; $5 million; Florida gives up claims in Oregon Territory, U.S. gives up claims to Texas
54. American System- American System 1816 - plan of Henry Clay for developing profitable home market. System had 3 main parts: protectionism, publicly subsidized transportation (vetoed by Madison), 2nd Bank of the US.
55. Bill of Rights- to guarantee liberties against later legislative encroachment; (written by Madison) adopted 1791 - safeguard American principles. Protections (freedom of religion, speech, press; right to bear arms, tried by jury; right to assemble and petition gov for redress of grievances.)
56. Judicial Review- principles of '"'judicial review'"' idea that Supreme Court alone had last word on question of constitutionality; introduced in Marbury v Madison 1803
57. Era of Good Feelings- 1816-1828; name is misgnomer. Tranquility and prosperity happen in early years, period was troubled. Acute issues tariff, bank, internal improvements, and sale of public lands= contested. Sectionalism. Conflict over slavery to raise prob.
58. Citizen Genet- Objecting to Washington"'"s policy of neutrality, '"'citizen'"' Edmond Genet, the French minister to the US, broke all normal rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people to support the French Cause.
59. Alien and Sedition Acts- 1798 – Naturalization, 2 add. Alien Laws (President empowered to deport foreigners in time of peace and war), Sedition Act- anyone impeded policies government or falsely defamed officials including president, liable to heavy fine and imprisonment; Naturalization Act – 14 years - Federalist Congress, to discourage Jeffersonian Europeans; Raised residence requirements for aliens desired to bcm citizens from 5 years to 14.;
60. Pinckney Treaty- Treaty 1795 – U.S. receives western Florida - Fearing treaty indicated Anglo-American alliance, Spain strike deal w/ US- granted US everything demanded, including free navigation of Mississippi and disputed territory north of Florida.
61. National Republicans- Clay, Crawford, Jackson, and Adams all National Republicans in election of 1824. old Republican ideals of limited government and strict interpretation of the Constitution, After War of 1812, the majority of Republicans had adopted what had once been a Federalist program.
1825-1865
1. Manifest Destiny- expressed popular belief that the US had a divine mission to extend its powers and civilization across the breadth of N. America
2. Webster-Ashburton Treaty 1842- disputed territory split b/w Maine & British Canada. Settled Minnesota territory.
3. Oregon Treaty- on Pacific Coast; once claimed by Spain, Russia, G. Britain, and US. 1846- Got by ceded to US from Britain following a '"'joint claim on the territory'"'- Treaty of Oregon. Present states= Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Parts of Montana and Wyoming.
4. James K. Polk- Pres from Tennessee; favored annexation of Texas. Served 1845-49. A minority president.
5. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- 1848 Mexico recognizes Rio Grande River as S border of Texas- treaty w/ Mexico and US
6. Mexican Cession- US takes possession of former Mexican provinces of CA and New Mexico. Part of Treaty of G.H. (see 5). Present Day states- Cali, Nevada, Utah, Part Wyoming Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.
7. Wilmot Proviso- proposed that appropriations bill to forbid slavery in new territories. Defeated.
8. Ostend Manifesto- 1852 scheme to buy Cuba from Spain
9. Clayton Bulwer Treaty 1850- forbids G. Britain or US from building canal in Central Mexico
10. Gadsden Purchase 1853- Pres. Pierce bought parts of Arizona and New Mexico for Railroads. Purchased for $10 mill.
11. Popular Sovereignty- instead of Congress determining whether to allow slavery, let the ppl who settled the territory decide. Demo senator from Michigan Lewis Cass proposed.
12. Compromise of 1850- CA admitted as free state added to North"'"s political poer, deepened commitment of Nerns to saving the Union from secession. Fugitive Slave law and pop. sovereignty= controversy. Territories of New Mexico & Utah open to pop sov.
13. Stephen A. Douglas- Illinois senator engineered diff. coalitions to pass each part of compromise of 1850 separately. Devoted to Union.
14. Fugitive Slave Law- persuaded Serns to accept loss of CA to abolitionist & free-soilers. Enforcement in N resisted by antislavery Nerns. Fleeing slaves couldn"'"t testify in own behalf, denied jury trial. Nerns who aided salves escape liable to fines and jail.
15. Underground Railroad- network of '"'conductors'"' and '"'stations'"' to help slaves reach freedom in N or Canada.
16. Harriet Beecher Stowe- writer of Uncle Tom"'"s Cabin
17. Uncle Tom"'"s Cabin- influential book, moved Nerns & Europeans to regard slave owners as cruel.
18. Hinton Helper/Impending Crisis of the South- attacked slavery, statistics showed its negative impact.
19. Kansas-Nebraska Act- 1854 proposed Nebraska divided into Kansas and Nebraska territories & the settlers decided about slavery (pop sov)
20. Know-Nothing Party- American Party- natavists- quickly lost influence as sectional issues again became paramount. Weakened Whigs. Dislike/suspicion of immigrants and Catholics.
21. Republican Party/3rd American Party Sys- founded in Racine, Wisconsin; reaction to Kansas-Nebraska Act. Free Soilers, antislavery Whigs (Conscious Whigs), and Demos
22. Free Soilers (movement and party)- wanted to prevent extension of slavery into new territories; free territory in the new lands only for whites; didn"'"t call for end of slavery.
23. Bleeding Kansas- Fighting b/w pro and anti-slavery groups; near start of Civil War.
24. Sumner-Brooks Affair- Brooks beat Sumner (leading Radical Repub) w/ cane, increased sectional hatred.
25. Lecompton Constitution- whether to accept or reject a proslavery state constitution for Kansas. Defeated.
26. Dred Scott v. Sanford- 1) Dred Scott had no right to sue 2) Congress did not have power to deprive any person of property without due process of law 3) Miss. Comp. Unconstitutional. Roger Taney was Chief Justice (a Sern Demo) ruled in this.
27. Lincoln-Douglas Debates- Abrah. Lin & Stephen D. argue in debates for presidency over Dred Scott case.
28. Freeport Doctrine- Douglas- slavery could not exist in a community if the local citizens did not pass and enforce laws (slave codes) for maintaining it.
29. Crittenden Compromise- proposed constitutional amendment that would guarantee right to hold slaves in all territories S of 36 (degree) 30"'"
30. Battle of Antietam- longest, bloodiest battle of CW- a draw, but tactically a Union victory; turning point battle.
31. Trent Affair- Union warship stopped British ship to remove Mason & Slidell.
32. Emancipation Proclamation- proclaimed to freed slaves in S, issued by Lincoln. Didn"'"t free them in Border States.
33. Morrill Land Grant Act- 1862- encouraged states to use the sale of federal land grants to maintain agricultural and technical colleges.
34. Homestead Act- 1862; promoted settlement of Great Plains. Offered 160 acres to ppl for 5 yrs farm service.
35. Spoils system/rotation in office- practice of giving jobs & favors to political supporters.
36. Mexican American War- border dispute. Stephen Kearny- general that took Santa Fe, NM territory & Sern Cali. Winfield Scott- selected to invade Central Mexico, captured Mexico City, Vera Cruz. John C. Fremont overthrew Mexican rule in N. Cali, made CA independent. Zachary Taylor general in war.
37. John Deere- invented the steel plow
38. Seneca Falls Convention- Woman"'"s Rights Convention 1848- Elizabeth Cady Stanton read '"'Declaration of Sentiments'"'; launched modern women"'"s rights movement
39. Dorothea Dix- New England teacher-author. Assembled reports on insanity and asylums from observations. Her urging resulted in improved conditions and gain for mentally ill.
40. John C.Calhoun- Senator Calhoun- '"'Great Nullifier'"'; he pleased to leave salvery alone, return runaway slaves, give S rights as minority, restore the political balance; labored to preserve the Union and had taken his stand on the Constitution.
41. Maine Laws- Maine Law of 1851- '"'the law of Heaven Americanized'"' prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor.
42. Trail of Tears- trail to new established Indian Territory by the Indian Removal Act where they were to be '"'permanently'"' free of white encroachments.
43. Bank War- Bank undeniably antiwestern in hostility to '"'wildcat banks'"' that provided financial fuel for western expansion; Nicholas Biddle - superbank. Out of touch w/ New Democracy. Plutocratic, run aristocracy, headed by him
44. Cyrus McCormick- invented the mower reaper
45. nullification- the nullification theory- each state had the right to decide whether to obey a federal law or to declare it null and void (of no effect)
46. William Lloyd Garrison/Liberator- antislavery newspaper; was bitterly condemned as a terrorist; reformer
47. American Antislavery Society- 1833- William Lloyd Garrison and other abolitionists founded this. He condemned and burned the Constitution as a proslavery document. Advocated immediate abolition of slavery in every state and territory without compensating the slave owners.
48. Irish immigration- most uneducated & poor, Usually entered workforce at very bottom, conflict w/ Blacks and whites, enrolled many kids in Catholic schools, alcoholism; potato famine one of reasons why came over.
49. abolitionists- those opposed to slavery who "'"fight"'" against it.
50. Horace Mann- 1796-1859, brilliant graduate of Brown University. Secretary of Mass Board of Education, campaigned for more better schoolhouses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, expanded curriculum.
51. Commonwealth v Hunt- Supreme court of Mass ruled in this case; labor unions weren"'"t illegal conspiracies provided methods were '"'honorable and peaceful'"'; didn"'"t legalize the strike overnight.
52. Transcendentalism- movement of the 1830s resulted from liberalizing of Puritan theology. Rejected prevailing theory that al knowledge comes to the mind through senses; truth '"'transcends'"' the senses.
53. Whigs/2nd American Party sys- favored Clay"'"s American System (a national bank, fed funding of internal improvements, a protective tariff) Opposed immorality, vice, crime, which some blamed on immigrants. Voters= NEers and residents of mid-Atlantic and upper-Middle-Western states; Protestants of old English stock; middle-class urban professionals
54. Apologist"'"s View of Slavery- ppl who felt that slavery was justified by scripture, and that slaveowners generally did much to elevate their slaves both mentally and religiously; One who makes an apology; one who speaks or writes in defense of a faith, a cause, or an institution
55. Force Act- Acts of 1870, 71- federal troops were able to stop the Ku Klux Klan antics and cruelty.
56. Lucretia Mott- Quaker who attended the London antislavery convention of 1840 and was not recognized b/c she was a woman. A Women"'"s right movement character.
57. Independent Treasury- Independent Treasury Bill passed Congress in 1840- repealed next year by Whigs, scheme reenacted by Demos in 1846; continued until merged w/ Federal Reserve System in next century.
58. Nashville Convention- 1850; to protect the slave property in the South.
59. Compact Theory- stressed by Jefferson and Madison- popular among English political philosophers in 17th and 18th centuries; meant that the 13 sovereign states in creating the federal government had entered into a '"'compact'"' or contract regarding its jurisdiction.
60. Frederick Douglass- Escaped slavery 1838. 1841- gave impromptu speech at antislavery meeting in Mass. After lectured widely for cause, despite beatings and threats. 1845- published autobio Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Depicted origins as son of black slave women, white father, and escape to N. Flexibly practical.
61. John Slidell- Polk sent him to Mexico City as minister late in 1845. He was instructed to offer max $25 mill for Cali. and territory to east. Mexican ppl wouldn"'"t permit him to present proposition.
62. Second Great Awakening- during 1820-1860; a reaction against the rationalism that was in fashion during the Enlightenment and American Revolution. Charles G. Finney (eccentric Presbyterian minister); Peter Carwright (preacher for Baptist/Methodist); William Miller (millennialism); Mormons founded
63. Worcester v. Georgia- 1828 case in which Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee National tribal council illegal and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian affairs and Indian Lands. They appealed this move to the SC, which upheld rights of Indians.
64. Charles River Bridge case- ruled that a charter granted by a state to a company cannot work to the disadvantage of the public. The CRB Company protested when the Warren Bridge Company was authorized to build a free bridge where the CRB company had a toll bridge. Rule WBC could build bridge.
65. cult of domesticity/true womanhood- the women"'"s special sphere- women role as homemakers
66. gag rule- or gag resolution. Petitions had came into Congress from antislavery reformers. In 1836 Serners drove this through the House. It required all such antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate.
67. DeTocqueville/Democracy in America- visitor to US in 1830s- Alexis de T. a young French aristocrat. Amazed by the informal manners and democratic attitudes of Americans; book discussed advantages of democracy and consequences of majority's unlimited power.
68. William Seward- Republican – secretary of State; annexation of Midway Island & rights to build canal in Nicaragua; Purchase of Alaska
69. removal of deposits- Jackson decided to weaken bank by '"'removing'"' federal deposits from its vaults. Proposed depositing no more funds w/ Biddle, gradually shrinking existing deposits by using them to defray day-to-day expanses of gov. Would ensure their demise
70. Brigham Young- leader of the Mormons who helped them escape persecution in East. Moved to West and founded the New Zion community in Salt Lake, Utah.
71. Specie Circular- Jackson hoped to check the inflationary trend by issuing a presidential order known as this. Required all future purchases of fed lands be made in gold and silver rather than in paper banknotes.
72. Perpetual Union- Art. 10 Sect. 1 of Constitution prohibits states with in the union from forming alliances and confederations. It says nothing about secession. Sern states didn't form the confederacy until after they left the union and were no longer bound by the Constitution. Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation; '"'And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.'"' Argument that if their reps signed the Const, they pledged themselves to perpetual union.
73. Mormons- Church of the Latter-Day Saints; founded by Joseph Smith in 1830. based thinking on the Book of Mormon. Under leadership of Brigham Young the Mormons migrated to western frontier. Moved to Great Salt Lake, Utah. Practiced polygamy.
74. Prigg v Pennsylvania- SC ruled- unconstitutional for bounty hunters or anyone but owner of an escaped slave to apprehend that slave; weakened fugitive slave laws
75. Tariff of Abominations (Tariff of 1828)- Bill- more concerned w/ getting pres. than manufacturers. Scheme= push duties high as 45 percent on certain manu. items. Impose heavy tariff on certain raw materials (mostly wool!). Materials urgently needed for manu, esp. in NE, even industrial section= presumably vote against measure. Passed!
76. Antebellum- years before the Civil War
77. Neal Dow- prominent among the '"'temperance'"' movement. Not against '"'teetotalism'"' (total elimination of intoxicants) just limiting. Reformer. '"'Father of Prohibition'"' – sponsored Maine Law of 1851.
78. National Banking Act- 1863- authorized by congress the National Banking System. Launched to stimulate sale of gov bonds, to establish standard bank-note currency. Banks that joined this could buy gov bonds and issue sound paper money back by them. First sig step toward unified banking network since 1836. Functioned for 50 yrs.
79. Nature of the Union- part of the Webster-Hayne debates
1865-1900
1. 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments- 13- freed slaves; 14- all ppls born or naturalized in US were citizens- equal protection of law and due process of law; 15- prohibited any state from denying a citizen"'"s right to vote based on race, color, or previous conditions of servitude.
2. Freedmen"'"s Bureau- welfare agency, provided food, shelter, & medical aid. Education.
3. Black codes- prohibited blacks from renting land or borrowing $ to buy land. Placed freedmen in semi-bondage work contracts. Prohibited blacks from testifying against whites in court.
4. Civil Rights Act of 1866- all Blacks to be US citizens & against Black codes.
5. Scalawags- Sern republicans
6. Sharecropping- landowner provided seeds & supplies in return for share of crop.
7. Credit Mobilier Scandal- insiders gave stock to influential members of Congress to avoid investigation of profits they were making from gov. subsides for building transcontinental RR.
8. Boss Tweed (William Tweed)- boss of Demo party, stole about $200 mill from NY"'"s tax payers.
9. Thomas Nast- cartoonist who helped expose Boss Tweed.
10. Compromise of 1877- deal b/w parties; Rutherford B. Hayes (Repub) bcms Pres.
11. long drives- lasted about 20 yrs 1865-1885; avg herd=3,000 cattle. Drive lasted 2-3 months; rail-towns= Abilene, Wichita, Dodge City; 4 main trails used.
12. open range- by 1880- 45 mill cattle spread across the Nern plains. Winters of 85, 86, 87 severe= 80-90% of all cattle died. Overproduction dropped prices. Barbed wire by Joseph Glidden brought an end to open range.
13. Social Darwinism- by Herbert Specer- survival of the fittest in the business arena. William Graham Sumner=chief advocate in the US
14. Chinese Exclusion Act 1882- first major law to restrict immigration on the basis of race and nationality
15. Turner (Frontier) Thesis- the frontier shaped by Americans; Frederick Jackson Turner
16. A Century of Dishonor- book by Helen Hunt Jackson; sympathy for Indians
17. Dawes Act- Severalty Act 1887- divided tribal lands into plots of 160 acres or less for each family. US citizenship to those who stayed 25 yrs.
18. Wounded Knee- massacre- 200 Indians.
19. Crop Lien System- mortgage on crops, to be paid at harvest.
20. Helen Hunt Jackson- author of A Century of Dishonor.
21. Plessy v. Ferguson- upheld Louisiana law requiring '"'separate but equal'"' accommodations
22. Jim Crow laws- required separate washrooms, drinking fountains, park benches, etc. in public places.
23. Ida Wells- Memphis Free Speech- Black newspaper campaign against lynching & Jim Crow Laws
24. Booker T. Washington- established Tuskegee Institute; organized National ***** Business League (supported businesses owned by blacks)
25. The Grange- & national granger mvmnt= social organization for farmers- actions to protect farmers.
26. Redemption (redeemers)- Sern conservatives
27. Granger Laws- laws to regulate the rates of RRs and elevators
28. Munn v. Illinois- upheld the right of a state to regulate business of a public nature (RRs); Wabash v. Illinois ruled individual states could not regulate interstate commerce.
29. Interstate Commerce Act- 1886- required RRs to be '"'reasonable and just'"'; set up ICC.
30. Farmer"'"s Alliances- education in advances, protected farmers; National alliance organization of farmers.
31. Tenure of Office Act 1867- prohibited the president from removing a federal official or military commander w/o the approval of the Senate
32. J.P. Morgan- J. Pierpont Morgan- banker- took control of RRs & consolidated them.; owner of US Steel after Carnegie sold it to him.
33. Andrew Carnegie- Carnegie Steel owner
34. vertical integration- company would control every stage of the industrial process.
35. John D. Rockefeller- oil refineries & standard oil trust (rock controlled 90% of oil refinery)
36. horizontal integration- competitors were bought under a single corporation.
37. Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)- prohibited trusts (monopolies basically) in trade or commerce.
38. Social Gospel – importance of applying Christian principles to social problems; New York minister Walter Rauschenbusch led mvmnt.
39. Horatio Alger- myth- the self-made man
40. National Labor Union- first attempt to organize workers skilled/unskilled
41. Knights of Labor- second labor union- avoid detection by employers (secret)- no child labor, no trusts
42. Haymarket Incident- bombing 1886- police officers killed by bomb- supposed anarchists.
43. American Federation of Labor- AF of L- 1886- association of craft unions –skilled workers.
44. Samuel Gompers- led AF of L
45. Pullman Strike- 1894- RR sleeping cars- workers strikes
46. new immigrants- from southern/eastern Europe
47. old immigrants- from northern/western Europe. Protestants- some Irish & German Catholics.
48. Frederick Olmstead- Frederic Law Olmsted- landscape architect; designed suburban community; later planned city parks & boulevards such as Central Park, US Capital
49. Henry George (Progress and Poverty)- book proposed singular tax.
50. Edward Bellamy (Looking Backward)- vision of future in which a cooperative society had eliminated poverty, greed, & crime
51. settlement house movement- settlement house- social services for poor & uneducated.
52. Salvation Army- provided necessities for homeless and poor.
53. Anti-Saloon League- persuaded 21 states to close down bars & saloons.
54. William Randolph Hearst- NY publisher- used yellow journalism.
55. Yellow journalism- sensationalized news writing.
56. Populist (People"'"s) Party- alliance movement provided foundation for election of senator, state laws enacted through referendums.
57. Molly McGuires- a shadowy Irish miners"'" union hat rocked the Pennsylvania coal districts in the 1860s and 1870s
58. William Jennings Bryan- Democratic nominee for pres. made '"'Cross of Gold'"' Speech; for populist party as well; for unlimited coinage of silver
59. Battle of Little Bighorn- George Custer defeated at this Sioux War battle by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.
60. pragmatism (William James)- common sense, between totally unrealistic & too realistic; a leading advocate for pragmatism
61. Bland-Allison Act- (1878)- passed over Hayes"'" veto. Allowed limited coinage b/w 2-4 million in silver each month at the standard silver-to-gold ratio of 16 to 1.
62. Edwin Stanton- secretary of war, radical republicans, in charge of military govt"'"s.
63. Young Men"'"s Christian Association- one of the three main organizations made by the social gospel movement. YMCA (YWCA & Salvation Army)
64. injunction- A court order prohibiting a party from a specific course of action.
65. '"'Crime of "'"73'"'- Congress stopped the coining of silver
66. Platt amendment- 1901- requirements for Cuba before troops left
67. Women"'"s Christian Temperance Union- advocated abstinence from alcohol; Carry A. Nation raided saloons
68. Bread and butter unionism- bread-and-butter issues are those such as wages and working conditions; Eva McDonald Valesh adopted this while working with the AF of L
69. Spanish-American War- over the problems in Cuba
70. Jingoism- intense for m of nationalism calling for aggressive foreign policy
71. Alfred Thayer Mahan- The Influence of Sea Power Upon History- book argued that a strong navy was crucial to a country becoming a world power.
72. Sioux Wars- b/w Indians and white men as they settled on their lands; man Sitting Bull- defeated Custer; man Crazy Horse- defeated Custer; Battle of Little Bighorn- defeated Custer
73. Gilded Age- expression first used by Mark Twain. Last years of the 19th century
74. Atlanta Compromise- Speech by Booker T. Washington; He spoke to a mostly white audience and told how his race would be content by living '"'by the productions of our hands.'"'
75. John Dewey- a leading advocate for pragmatism
76. Sherman Silver Purchase Act- 1890- increased the coinage of silver
77. Pendleton (Civil Service) Act- set up Civil Service Commission- examination for fed jobs.
78. Louis Sullivan- builds the first skyscraper in Chicago
79. John Peter Altgeld- 1892; German-born Demo of strong liberal tendencies elected gov of Illinois. He pardoned the three survivors of the Haymarket case after studying it extensively
80. Chief Joseph- effort to lead Nez Perce into Canada- failed. Indian Chief.
81. Cross of Gold Speech- by Williams Jennings Bryan- don"'"t crucify nation on this Cross of Gold. Speech got him Demo nomination for Presidential elections.
82. Radical Reconstruction- aka congressional reconstruction- led by Charles Sumner & Thaddeus Stevens- two major points= elevation of the ex-slave and severe punishment for rebels. These two defeated in Congress, Stevens dies. New radicals want protect tariffs, RRs & banking legislation from the Serns
83. Joseph Pulitzer- a Hungarian-born leader in the techniques of sensationalism in ST. Louis and w/ the New York World ; competitor was Hearst
84. Gospel Of Wealth- everyone had duty to be rich; thus rich use philanthropy; book by Andrew Carnegie 1889
85. Cult of Domesticity- the women"'"s special sphere- women role as homemakers
86. Boxer Rebellion- in China, nationalists attacked foreigners.
87. '"'Waving the Bloody Shirt'"'- using the fact that a person fought in the Civil War as campaign propaganda. (ie- Grant won elections by waving the bloody shirt- Union war general and hero)
88. Seward"'"s Folly- Purchase of Alaska by Repub Secretary of State William Seward. 1867 from Russia.
89. Chataugua Movement- the courses of home study for adults. 100,000 ppl enrolled in 1892 alone.
90. '"'Forty Acres and a Mule'"'- one of the first reparations for slaves; land in S divided into 40 acre plots, and animals that were no longer useful to the military (mules and horses) were to be distributed to each of the households
91. Coxey"'"s Army- March to Washington in 1894 by thousands of unemployed
92. Teller Amendment- (McKinley & congress)- passed resolution on April 20 authorizing war- pasrt of resolution was that US had no intention of taking control of Cuba
93. Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives)- photojournalist, showed pictures in this book- exposed slum conditions
1900 – 1918
1. Treaty of Versailles- peace conference in 1919- Wilson made first trip abroad; Germany was ordered to pay fines to Allies to repay the costs of the war.
2. League of Nations- Wilson"'"s idea in 14 points, designed to be run by a council of the five largest countries; international peacekeeping organization
3. Committee on Public Information- aka Creel Committee; headed by George Creel; in charge of propaganda for WWI. Depicted the U.S. as champion of justice and liberty.
4. muckrakers- writers who specialized in political scandals; Journalists who searched for and publicized real or alleged acts of corruption of public officials, businessmen, etc
5. Russo-Japanese War- 1904-1905- Japan winning, but Treaty of Portsmouth ended war=resentment; Japan had attacked the Russian Pacific fleet over Russia's refusal to withdraw its troops from Mancharia after the Boxer Rebellion (1904-1905)
6. Panama Canal- built to make passage way b/w Atlantic and Pacific oceans; George Goethals was chief engineer of the Canal.
7. Federal Trade Commission- regulatory agency to investigate unfair trade practice in every industry but banking/transportation; established 1914; helped maintain a competitive economy
8. Creel Committee- committee on public info head by George Creel; in charge of propaganda for WWI. Depicted the U.S. as champion of justice and liberty
9. International Workers of the World- aka Wobblies; a militant, radical union; favored socialism and opposed free enterprise; disliked by big business & radical unions.
10. Federal Reserve System- national banking system w/ 12 district banks supervised by the Federal Reserve Board.
11. Hay-Buneau-Varilla Treaty- 1903; U.S. guaranteed independence of the new Republic of Panama.
12. Woodrow Wilson- Demo, 1912 election, pres.; New Freedom plan
13. Progressive movement- to improve life in the industrial age- building on society; Robert LaFollette was a major leader;
14. Wobblies- The International Workers of the World
15. Article X- Article 10 of the Treaty of Versailles;Created the League of Nations.
16. Henry Cabot Lodge- Republican, senator from Mass.; against the League of Nations, (packed the foreign relations committee with critics= convinced Senate to reject the treaty.) Alienated Latin American & Japan; made Lodge Corollary that states that non-European countries would be excluded from owning land in Western Hemisphere.
17. Open Door Policy- all nations have equal trading privileges in China
18. Fourteen Points- Wilson"'"s peace settlements- w/ war aims; proposed League of Nations; included freedom of the seas
19. 16th, 17th amendments- 16th- authorized the gov to collect income tax;17th- direct election of senators, required all senators to be elected by popular vote
20. Upton Sinclair (The Jungle)- conditions in Chicago meatpacking industry- book; about the horrors of food productions in 1906, bad quality of meat and dangerous working conditions.
21. Volstead Act- 1919: Defined what drinks constituted "intoxicating liquors" under the 18th Amendment, and set penalties for violations of prohibition
22. Mann-Elkin Act- 1910- gave the ICC the power to suspend new RR rates & oversee telephone/graph & cable companies; Signed by Taft; supported labor reforms; gave the ICC power to prosecute its own inquiries into violations of its regulations.
23. Sussex/Arabic Pledges- German promise not to sink merchant or passenger ships w/o giving due warning.
24. Charles and Mary Beard- famous historians (husband and wife); wrote 1913 that Constitution was written not to ensure a democratic gov, but to protect economic interests of its writers; Much criticism b/c of.
25. Anthracite Coal Strike- miners"'" strike 1902- settled by Roos- owners gave in; 1902, George F. Baer led the miner's union then.
26. Zimmerman Note (Telegram)- March 1, 1917- US newspapers carried news of secret offer made by Germany to Mexico; offered to help Mexico recover Texas, New Mexico, & Arizona for a pledge to help Germany
27. Eugene V. Debs- one of founders of Socialists (Pullmen Strikes); led the American Railway Union
28. Samuel '"'Golden Rule'"' Jones- a mayor for municipal reforms (public services reformation)
29. Underwood-Simmons Tariff- Oct 13, 1913 - Lowered tariffs on items that could be produced more cheaply in the U.S. than abroad.
30. Bull Moose Party- Roos said he was as strong as a moose- progressive"'"s new name; The Progressive Party, Roos's party in1912 election.
31. irreconcilables- voted against the League of Nations with or without reservations
32. Dollar Diplomacy- policy of promoting US trade by supporting American enterprises abroad; to avoid military intervention by giving foreign countries monetary aid
33. W.E.B. DuBois (Niagara Movement)- He met w/ a group of black intellectuals to discuss program of protest/action; scholar/writer- black leader.
34. Theodore Roosevelt- assistant secretary of navy, formed Rough Riders to fight in Spanish-American war, Pres, New Nationalism
35. Gentlemen"'"s Agreement- secret agreement that Japan would restrict emigration & US would repeal discriminatory laws in CA
36. '"'Birth of a Nation'"'/D.W. Griffith- film in 1915; man in it blamed Reconstructionists and Southern blacks for his own misfortunes; reflects that resentment by depicting radical Republicans and "uppity" African-Americans as the cause of all social, political, and economic problems since the Civil War
37. '"'Good and bad'"' trusts- good trusts- with public consciences; bad trusts- which lusted greedily for power. Concluded by Roosevelt when he decided these (w/ their efficient means of production), had arrived to stay.
38. Emilio Aguinaldo- Filipino nationalist leader; insurrection against US; leader of the provisional government but was removed by the U.S.
39. '"'Black Jack'"' John Pershing- pursued Pancho Villa in Mexico for months w/o catching him
40. Jacob Riis- wrote How the Other Half Lives; Early 1900's writer; exposed social and political evils
41. Lusitania- British passenger line, torpedoed & sunk by German submarines
42. Muller v Oregon- attorney Louis D. Brandeis persuaded the SC to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers by presenting evidence of the harmful effects of factory labor on women"'"s weaker bodies.
43. Triple wall of privilege- banks, tariffs, trusts; part of Wilson"'"s New Freedom Plan
44. insurgent"'"s revolt- revolt in the Philippine Islands- Us fought war to suppress a Filipino rebellion against American rule, under Emilio Aguinaldo
45. Robert LaFollete- direct primary system; (nominating party candidates by majority vote); great debater and political leader; believed in libertarian reforms; major leader of the Progressive movement
46. reservationists- led by Lodge, could accept League if reservations were added to the covenant
47. Spheres of influence- other countries could dominate trade & investment within their sphere (port or region) & shut out competitors; Region in which political and economic control is exerted on by a European nation to the exclusion of all others
48. Ballinger-Pinchot Affair- Pinchot, head of the Forestry Department, accused Ballinger, Secretary of the Interior, of abandoning federal conservation policy. Taft sided with Ballinger and fired Pinchot.
49. Big Stick Policy- '"'speak softly and carry a big stick'"'; be aggressive w/ foreign affairs; said by Roos.
50. Roosevelt Corollary- U.S. would act as international policemen; addition to Monroe Doctrine
51. Keating-Owen Child Labor Act- 1916; barred goods manufactured by children from interstate commerce.
52. Food Administration- had authority to fix food prices, license distributors, coordinate purchases, oversee exports, act against hoarding and profiteering, and encourage farmers to grow more crops.
53. Insular Cases- (island cases) ruled that constitutional rights were not automatically extended to citizens of US territories
54. New Nationalism- more gov. regulation of business/unions, suffrage, social welfare programs- by Roos; government authority would be balanced and coordinate economic activity. Government would regulate business.
55. Pure Food and Drug Act- 1906- forbade the manufacture, sale, transportation of adulterated or mislabeled food/drugs
56. Northern Securities Case- SC ordered this company to dissolve because it was a trust.
57. Lochner v New York- 1905- the SC invalidated a NY law establishing a 10-hour day for bakers; setback for labor
58. Clayton Anti-trust Act- (aka Labor"'"s Magna Carta); 1914- strengthened Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 (gave it more power against trusts and big business.). Clause exempting unions from being prosecuted as trusts.
59. New Freedom- Wilson- limit business & gov, end corruption, support small businesses. promised moral approach to foreign affairs in gov.; monopolies had to be broken up
60. Great White Fleet- 1907- 1909-Roos sent battleships on Cruise around the world; to show the world the U.S. naval power
1918-1941
1. Harlem Renaissance- talented actors, artists, musicians, & writers living in Harlem
2. National Origins Act- part of the Immigration quota system, 2% of the number of people of that nationality that were allowed in during 1890
3. cultural isolation- A subculture's relative lack of participation in, or communication with, the larger cultural system -- can be internally or externally imposed
4. 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st amendments- 18th- prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages; 19th- 1920 Woman"'"s suffrage amendment; 20th- '"'lame-duck'"', shortened the period between pres. election and inauguration; 21st- repealed the 18th amendment
5. Andrew Mellon- (185
(Update: On Tuesday, May 16, the Senate passed Sen. Jeff Bingaman's (D-NM) amendment to S. 2611 that significantly reduced the number of legal immigrants who could enter under the bill's "guest worker" program. As a result of this change, our estimate of the number of legal immigrants who would enter the country or would gain legal status under S. 2611 falls from 103 million to around 66 million over the next 20 years.)
If enacted, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (CIRA, S.2611) would be the most dramatic change in immigration law in 80 years, allowing an estimated 103 million persons to legally immigrate to the U.S. over the next 20 years—fully one-third of the current population of the United States.
Much attention has been given to the fact that the bill grants amnesty to some 10 million illegal immigrants. Little or no attention has been given to the fact that the bill would quintuple the rate of legal immigration into the United States, raising, over time, the inflow of legal immigrants from around one million per year to over five million per year. The impact of this increase in legal immigration dwarfs the magnitude of the amnesty provisions.
In contrast to the 103 million immigrants permitted under CIRA, current law allows 19 million legal immigrants over the next twenty years. Relative to current law, then, CIRA would add an extra 84 million legal immigrants to the nation’s population.
The figure of 103 million legal immigrants is a reasonable estimate of the actual immigration inflow under the bill and not the maximum number that would be legally permitted to enter. The maximum number that could legally enter would be almost 200 million over twenty years—over 180 million more legal immigrants than current law permits.
Immigration Status
To understand the provisions of CIRA, largely based on a compromise by Senators Chuck Hagel (R–Nebraska) and Mel Martinez (R–Florida), it is useful to distinguish between the three legal statuses that a legal immigrant might hold:
1. Temporary Status: Persons in this category enter the U.S. temporarily and are required to leave after a period of time.
2. Near-Permanent, Convertible Status: Persons in this category enter the U.S. and are given the opportunity to “adjust” or convert to legal permanent residence after a few years.
3. Legal Permanent Residence (LPR): Persons in this category have the right to remain in the United States for their entire lives. After five years, they have the right to naturalize and become citizens. As naturalized citizens, they have the constitutional rights to vote and to receive any government benefits given to native-born citizens.
A key feature of CIRA is that most immigrants identified as “temporary” are, in fact, given convertible status with a virtually unrestricted opportunity to become legal permanent residents and then citizens.
Another important feature of both CIRA and existing immigration law is that immigrants in convertible or LPR status have the right to bring spouses and minor children into the country. Spouses and dependent children will be granted permanent residence along with the primary immigrant and may also become citizens. In addition, after naturalizing, an immigrant has the right to bring his parents into the U.S. as permanent residents with the opportunity for citizenship. There are no numeric limits on the number of spouses, dependent children, and parents of naturalized citizens that may be brought into the country. Additionally, the siblings and adult children (along with their families) of naturalized citizens and the adult children (and their families) of legal permanent residents are given preference in future admission but are subject to numeric caps.
Key Provisions of CIRA
Four key provisions of CIRA would result in an explosive increase in legal immigration.
Amnesty for Current Illegal Immigrants: CIRA offers amnesty and citizenship to 85 percent of the nation’s current 11.9 million illegal immigrants. Under the plan, illegal immigrants who have been in the U.S. for five years or more (60 percent of illegals) would be granted immediate amnesty. Illegal immigrants who have been in the country between two and five years (25 percent of illegals) could travel to one of 16 “ports of entry,” where they would receive amnesty and lawful work permits.[1] In total, the bill would grant amnesty to 85 percent of the current illegal immigrant population, or some 10 million individuals.
After receiving amnesty, illegal immigrants would spend six years in a provisional status before attaining LPR status. After five years in LPR status, they would have the opportunity to become naturalized citizens and vote in U.S. elections. As well, the spouses and dependent children of current illegal immigrants would have the right to enter the U.S. and become citizens.[2] There would be no numeric limit on the number of illegal immigrants, spouses, and dependents receiving LPR status; under the amnesty provision, such individuals would not be counted against any other cap or limit in immigration law.[3]
The New “Temporary Guest Worker” Program: CIRA creates an entirely new “temporary guest worker” (H-2C) program. There is nothing temporary about this program; nearly all “guest workers” would have the right to become permanent residents and then citizens.
Foreign workers could enter the U.S. as guest workers if they have a job offer from a U.S. employer. In practical terms, U.S. companies would recruit foreign workers to enter the guest worker program and immigrate to the U.S. Most likely, intermediate employment firms would specialize in recruiting foreign labor for U.S. employers.
Guest workers would be allowed to remain in the U.S. for six years.[4] However, in the fourth year, the guest worker could ask for LPR status and would receive it if he has learned English or is enrolled in an English class.[5] There are no numeric limits on the number of guest workers who could receive LPR status. Upon receiving LPR status, the guest worker could remain in the country permanently. He could become a U.S. citizen and vote in U.S. elections after just five more years.
The spouses and minor children of guest workers would also be permitted to immigrate to the U.S.[6] When guest workers petition for LPR status, their spouses and children would receive it as well. Five years after obtaining LPR status, these spouses could become naturalized citizens. The bill sets no limit on the number of spouses and children who could immigrate under the guest worker program. After workers and their spouses have obtained citizenship, they would be able to bring in their parents as legal permanent residents.
The bill does provide numeric limits on the number of guest workers who can enter the country each year, but the number starts high and then grows exponentially. In the first year, 325,000 H-2C visas would be given out, but if employer demand for guest workers is high, that number could be boosted by an extra 65,000 in the next year. If employer demand for H-2C workers continues to be high, the number of H-2C visas could be raised by up to 20 percent in each subsequent year.
The 20 percent exponential escalator provision allows the number of H-2C immigrants to climb steeply in future years. If the H-2C cap were increased by 20 percent each year, within twenty years the annual inflow of workers would reach 12 million. At this 20 percent growth rate, a total of 70 million guest workers would enter the U.S. over the next two decades and none would be required to leave. While it is unlikely that so many workers would enter, the program does have the potential to bring ten of millions of immigrants to the U.S.
The “guest worker” program, then, is an open door program, based on the demands of U.S. business, that would allow an almost unlimited number of workers and dependents to enter the U.S. from anywhere in world and become citizens. It is essentially an “open border” provision.
Additional Permanent Visas for Siblings, Adult Children, and their Families: The permanent entry of non-immediate relatives—such as brothers, sisters, and adult children—is currently subject to a cap of 480,000 per year minus the number of immediate relatives (the parents, spouses, and minor children of U.S. citizens) admitted in the prior year. CIRA eliminates the deduction for immediate relatives from the cap.[7] This effectively increases the number of non-immediate relatives who could attain LPR status by 254,000 per year.
Additional Permanent Employment Visas: The U.S. currently issues around 140,000 employment-based visas each year. Under CIRA, the U.S. would issue 450,000 employment-based green cards per year between 2007 and 2016.[8] After 2016, the number would fall to 290,000 per year.[9] Under current law, LPR visas going to the spouses and children of workers with employment-based visas are counted against the cap. Under CIRA, these spouses and children would be removed from the cap and given legal permanent residence without numeric limits.[10] Historically, 1.2 dependent relatives have entered the U.S. for each worker under employment-based immigration programs.[11] This means that some 990,000 persons per year would be granted LPR status until 2016 and, after that, 638,000 per year.
Estimating Future Immigration Under CIRA
Most provisions of CIRA are straightforward; in many categories, the number of future immigrants allowed is either directly stated or can be easily calculated from the law’s provisions. In some areas, however, the law’s impact is uncertain. To estimate future legal immigration under the bill, three assumptions have been used in this paper:
* Spouses and children of workers: Dependent spouses and children represent a major component of current immigration. In the current employment-based visa program, 1.2 dependents enter for each incoming worker.[12] This paper assumes this ratio will continue in the employment-based program and will also apply to those entering under the new guest worker program. This is a conservative assumption: guest workers are likely to have lower education levels and thus to have larger families. Finally, many current illegal immigrants who would receive amnesty under the bill already have families in the U.S.; therefore the ratio of incoming spouses and children to amnesty recipients is assumed to be only 0.6, or half the ratio of the employment-based program.
* Parents of naturalized citizens: Parents of naturalized citizens currently make up eight percent of all new legal immigrants. This paper assumes that half of all adult immigrants will naturalize after five years of LPR status and that 30 percent of the parents of these naturalized citizens will immigrate in the three years after their children’s naturalization.
* Growth in the guest worker program: The number of immigrants in the guest worker program will be driven by employer demand. The bill allows the number of H-2C visas to increase by 20 percent per year; this level of growth would result in an extraordinary 60 million guest workers in the U.S. over the next twenty years. This paper assumes that the number of immigrants in the guest worker program would increase at a more moderate rate of 10 percent per year. Alternative estimates for 20 percent growth and zero growth in the program are also presented.[13]
A Flood of Legal Immigrants
Under CIRA, immigrants could enter the country or attain lawful status within the country through eight channels. In each channel, immigrants would be granted permanent residence and the right to become citizens. The first channel represents immigrants who would have entered under current law; the second channel represents illegal immigrants who are currently in the country and would be given legal permanent residence under the bill. The other six channels represent new inflows of legal immigrants that would occur as a result of the bill. The total number of new legal immigrants over a twenty year period would be as follows: (See Charts 1 and 2.)
1. Visas under current law: Roughly 950,000 persons receive permanent residence visas under current law each year. Over 20 years, the inflow of immigrants through this channel would be 19 million. This represents the status quo under existing law.
2. Amnesty: The bill would grant amnesty to roughly 10 million illegal immigrants. These individuals are currently living in the U.S.; amnesty would allow them to remain legally and to become U.S. citizens.
3. Expanded family chain migration: The number of family-sponsored visas for secondary family members, such as adult brothers and sisters, is currently limited to 480,000 per year minus the number of visas given to immediate family members (spouses, minor children, and parents of U.S. citizens). The bill changes the law so that the total quota on secondary family members would be 480,000 without deductions for immediate family members. The net increase in the number of immigrants under this provision would be around 254,000 per year, or 5.1 million over 20 years.[14]
4. Employment-based green cards: The bill would increase the number of employment-based visas from 140,000 to 450,000 per year. For the first time, it would also exempt the spouses and children of workers from the cap. Total annual immigration under this provision is likely to be 450,000 workers plus 540,000 family members annually. The net increase above current law over 20 years would be around 13.5 million persons.[15]
5. The guest worker (H-2C) program: CIRA would allow 325,000 persons to participate in the guest worker program in the first year. This number could rise by 65,000 in the next year and then by 20 percent per year. Assuming 10 percent annual growth in the annual number of guest workers entering the country (well below the bill’s maximum), the total inflow of workers under this program would be 20 million over 20 years.
6. Spouses and children of guest workers: Guest workers could bring their spouses and children to the U.S. as permanent residents; the added number of entrants would be 24 million over 20 years.
7. Spouses and children of illegal immigrants given amnesty: Illegal immigrants who received amnesty could bring their spouses and children into the U.S. as legal permanent residents with the opportunity for full citizenship. The number of spouses and children who would enter the U.S. as a result of amnesty would be at least six million.
8. Parents of naturalized citizens. The bill would substantially increase the number of naturalized citizens. Naturalized citizens would have an unlimited right to bring their parents into the U.S. as legal permanent residents. Over twenty years, the number of parents who would enter the U.S. as permanent legal residents as a result of CIRA would be around five million.
Overall, the bill would allow some 103 million persons to legally immigrate over the next twenty years. This is roughly one-third of the current population of the United States. All of these new entrants would be permanent residents and would have the right to become citizens. This would be a 84 million person net increase over current law.
Legal Flow Compared to Illegal Immigration
All of the immigration discussed to this point would be legal immigration. If illegal immigration continued after enactment of S.2611, the inflow of immigrants would be even greater. Although illegal immigration is considered a major problem, the proposed legal immigration under CIRA would dwarf it numerically. The net inflow of illegal immigrants into the U.S. population is around 700,000 per year.[16] Legal immigration under CIRA would exceed five million per year, seven times the rate of the current illegal immigration flow. Annual legal and illegal immigration together now equals about 1.7 million; future legal immigration alone under CIRA would be three times this amount.
Range of Estimates
The figure of 103 million new legal immigrants is based on the assumption that immigration under the guest worker program would grow at 10 percent per year. If guest-worker immigration grows at the maximum rate permitted by the bill, 20 percent per year, the total number of new immigrants coming to the U.S. over the next twenty years would be 193 million. On the other hand, if immigration under the H-2C program did not increase at all for two decades but remained fixed at the initial level of 325,000 per year, total legal immigration under CIRA would be 72 million over twenty years, or more than three times the level that would occur under current law. (See Chart 3.)
The tables in the Appendix show annual inflows of total legal immigrants in each of the eight channels mentioned above over the next twenty years. The tables show the estimated yearly rate of immigration under three scenarios for the H-2C program: zero growth, ten percent growth, and twenty percent growth.
Dwarfing the Great Migration
Between 1870 and 1920, the U.S. experienced a massive flow of immigration known as the “great migration”. During this period, foreign born persons hovered between 13 and 15 percent of the population.[17]In 1924, Congress passed major legislation greatly reducing future immigration. By 1970, foreign born persons had fallen to 5 percent of the population.
In the last three decades, immigration has increased sharply. The foreign born now comprise around 12 percent of the population, approaching the levels of the early 1900’s. However, if CIRA were enacted, and 100 million new immigrants entered the country over the next twenty years, foreign born persons would rise to over one quarter of the U.S. population.[18] There is no precedent for that level of immigration at any time in U.S. history.
Conclusion
If enacted, CIRA would be the most dramatic change in immigration law in 80 years. In its overall impact on the nation, the bill would rival other historic milestones, such as the creation of Social Security or Medicare.
The bill would give amnesty to 10 million illegal immigrants and quintuple the rate of legal immigration into the U.S. Under the bill, the annual inflow of immigrants with the option of becoming legal permanent residents would rise from the current level of one million per year to more than five million per year. Within a few years, the annual inflow of new immigrants would exceed one percent of the current U.S. population. This would be the highest immigration rate in U.S. history.
Within 20 years, some 103 million new immigrants would enter the U.S. This number is about one-third of the current U.S. population. All of these immigrants would be permanent residents with the right to become citizens and vote in U.S. elections. CIRA would transform the United States socially, economically, and politically. Within two decades, the character of the nation would differ dramatically from what exists today.
Robert Rector is Senior Research Fellow in Domestic Policy Studies at The Heritage Foundation.
Appendix and Tables
[1] S.2611, Section 601.
[2] S.2611 under Section 601, section 245B(a)(2).
[3] S.2611, under Section 601, section 245B (a)(3).
[4] S.2611, Section 403 (f)(1).
[5] S.2611 Section 408 (n)(1)(B).
[6] See S.6211, Section 403 (m)(1). Some might argue that the number of guest workers who would be permitted to attain LPR status would be subject to the overall caps on employment-based permanent visas elsewhere in law. But Section 408(h) of the bill, which deals with the right of guest workers to convert to LPR status, clearly states that “employment-based immigrant visas shall be made available to an alien having nonimmigrant status described in section 101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(c) [the H-2C program] upon the filing of a petition for such a visa.” In other word, LPR status shall be granted to any guest worker upon his filing of petition; there is no mention of any numeric cap or other mechanism limits the number of such status adjustments. If the bill’s authors intend to limit the opportunity of guest workers to obtain legal permanent residence with a numeric cap, then the bill should explicitly state that fact.
[7] S.2611 Section 501 (a)
[8] S.2611 Section 501(b)
[9] S.2611, Section 501(b)
[10] S.2611, Section 501(b)
[11] Ruth Ellen Wasem, “U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions,” CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, May 12, 2006, p. 18.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Several factors have not been included in the estimates. The paper ignores future levels of illegal immigration. The paper assumes that there are some 12 million illegal immigrants in the U.S.; this widely used figure rests on the assumption that nearly all illegal immigrants are counted in annual Census surveys. In fact, the number of illegal immigrants in the U.S. may be much larger; this would mean that the number of immigrants eligible for amnesty would also be higher. The paper also assumes that there will be no successful fraud in applications for amnesty; in fact, the standards for proving prior residence and employment in the U.S. are very flimsy. Fraud may be prevalent, further boosting amnesty numbers. Finally, there is no attempt to estimate return to native countries or reverse migration by new immigrants. In effect, the paper assumes that returns will be matched by a corresponding increase in new entrants under the H-2C program.
[14] This number is the net increase in immigration due to the legislation and does not include the secondary family members who would have immigrated under current law.
[15] This number is the net increase in employment-based immigration and does not include persons who would have immigrated under current law.
[16] Jeffrey Passel Unauthorized Migrants: Numbers and Characteristics, Pew Hispanic Center, Washington, D.C, June 14, 2005, p.6.
[17]National Research Council, The New Americans: Economic, Demographic and Fiscal Effects of Immigration, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1997, p. 35
[18] Currently there are around 35.7 million foreign-born persons in the U.S. (Passel, op.cit., p.3). With a new influx of 103 million immigrants, the total foreign-born population would reach around 124 million (adjusting for deaths in the interim.) Given the massive projected immigration, the population of the U.S. would have swollen to around 449 million by 2027. This would be up from a base projection of around 355 million. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004, “U.S. Interim Projections by Age, Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin,” at http.://www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/. The foreign born would comprise around 27 percent of the total population.
Japanese American internment was the forced removal and internment of approximately 120,000[1] Japanese and Japanese Americans (62% of whom were United States citizens)[2][3] from the West Coast of the United States during World War II. While approximately 10,000 were able to relocate to other parts of the country of their own choosing, the remainder – roughly 110,000 men, women and children – were sent to hastily constructed camps called "War Relocation Centers" in remote portions of the nation's interior.
President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066, which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones", from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and most of Oregon and Washington, except for those in internment camps.[4] In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion, removal, and detention, arguing that it is permissible to curtail the civil rights of a racial group when there is a "pressing public necessity."[5]
Some compensation for property losses was paid in 1948, but most internees were unable to fully recover their losses.[3] In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership",[6] and beginning in 1990, the government paid reparations to surviving internees.