The Middle Ages were followed by a period of great progress and changes, The Renaissance. The people of the 1400s proclaimed a new age and the rebirth of civilisation. Achievements were made in both arts and science during the period. The people in the 1400s claimed that the Middle Ages were a time of cultural and scientific decline, - The Middle/Dark Ages- between the time of ancient Europe and their own time.
The Renaissance was characterised by a great interest in learning and education. People studied the ancient works from Greece and Rome, and they admired ancient culture, science and art. The renaissance people felt that the study of humanities enriched their lives and that a person with proper education could enjoy a fully rewarding life. Humanities means people and the human society (history, literature, grammar and rhetoric). The study of medicine and theology were still important subjects. During the renaissance an interest in individuals grew. The nature of individuality was studied. In the Middle Ages men and women had been a part a whole and no particular interest was aimed at the individual.
The Renaissance started in Italy. Florence was the typical renaissance city. In the cities in northern Italy the economic and political conditions made the renaissance. These conditions were:
· Wealthy cities
· Merchants Wealthy middle class
· Bankers
· Influences from other parts of the world (the Muslim world had preserved the heritage from the ancient world)
The renaissance man was a curious and well educated person. The ideal man was like Leonardo da Vinci a genius. He was supposed to be well oriented in many fields.
In Florence the most famous family was The Medici family who owned banks in many places around Europe.
The Renaissance is perhaps most prominent in literature and art.
In time the Renaissance spread to northern Europe.
Assignment: Find out about one following persons. Explain what he did (why is he famous) and in what way he is a representative of the renaissance.
Machiavelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Cervantes, Boccachio, Erasmus of Rotterdam. King Erik XIV of Sweden .
The Renaissance for the common people
For most people life remained the same. However social and economical changes slowly took place, i.e. the nuclear family gradually began to emerge in the cities, businesses grew and there were changes in agriculture and industry. The changes in agriculture and industry came partly as a result of the black death. When many people died less wheat was sold and the farmers had to try selling other new grains and food such as fruit, meat and dairy products. The diet changed. When the economy improved there weren’t enough people who could work in the industries. The workers could demand higher wages and when they were denied this they revolted.
One of the most revolutionary changes for society in general was the art of printing books. In 1455 Johan Gutenberg’s printed bible came out. Before this technical revolution it was hard work copying books as this had to be done by hand. Now books could be printed much faster and many more books could be spread. This gave as a result that old and new ideas spread rapidly and that more people had access to books.
The Reformation
In time many people lost their confidence in the catholic church. As we have seen there were people, like for instance Erasmus of Rotterdam, who dared to come forward and criticise the ways in which the Catholic religion was practised by the church. They said that the church was too concerned with worldly affaires and that the taxes and fees for ceremonies like weddings and baptism became higher. The criticism and demand for changes increased during the 1400s.
In 1517 the biggest challenge for the Catholic church started. The struggle ended with a church split in two, The Catholic- and the Lutheran/protestant church. The one who started and led the challenge was a German monk by the name of Martin Luther.
Martin Luther criticised many things:
· The tradition that people could by God’s favour and forgiveness for sins that they had done. People could by an indulgence, a reduction of the punishment a sinner would suffer in purgatory (skärselden) after death, from church. Martin Luther meant that God gave salvation weather or not a person did good works. A person gets salvation through his faith in God according to Luther. This was expressed in “Faith alone”, which was an expression for the belief that it was the faith which the church and people should focus on not on living right according to the traditions and rules of the Catholic church.
· Luther denied the church’s authority in interpreting the Bible. The authority of the book itself and a person’s conscience outweighed the popes authority. Every person had to know the Bible and what it meant to them and their lives. The Bible is the only guide to Christianity. This gave as a result that Luther wanted the Bible to be translated into vernacular languages so that people could read the book and understand in their own way the words of God. Luther also meant that it was important to hold services in the language spoken by the people.
· It’s not the pope who has the right to judge a persons living and actions. A person has to examine and judge himself.
· Since it according to Luther is important that faith is in focus he also wanted to simplify the religious services and rituals so that the word of God came in focus.
Martin Luther explained his criticism in 95 theses which he posted on the door to the cathedral in Wittenberg in 1517. His ideas were spread across Europe thanks to the technique of printing books. Many people agreed with Luther. Several of the lords/princes in Germany saw that Luther’s ideas provided an opportunity to get more independent from the church and from the Emperor. Among the peasants many supported Luther’s ideas. They, like the princes, saw an opportunity to make the reduce the church’s power. They wanted the high taxes they had to pay to the nobility and the church to be reduced. At first Luther supported the peasants revolts but when he hears about the cruelty with which the peasants revolted he criticised their actions. The people who followed Luther were called protestants. And the movement which was started was called the protestant reformation.
In 1555 an agreement was signed in Augsburg. According to this each prince had the right to decide whether his land should be Lutheran or Catholic.
The reformation continues
Switzerland became a centre for the reformation. Several reformers spread their ideas from here:
· Zwingly: preached a good pastor and strong sense of discipline among the church members.
· Calvin: preached predestination and focus on faith. He differed from Luther’s idea that a person could work toward his own salvation trough good faith. Calvin meant that it is God alone who decides whether an individual reaches internal life. Strong leadership and morality characterise the Calvinists.
Henry VIII
The English king Henry VIII considered himself a good catholic but a quarrel with the pope over the kings first marriage that the king wanted to end, changed the relationship between the English monarch and the Catholic church. Between 1529 and 1536 Henry took control over the church in England. 1534 the parliament recognised Henry as the head of the church. He also took control over the monasteries, took their land and closed many of them. His goal wasn’t to change the catholic traditions but to get the power over the church. The result became the Anglican church. After Henrys death the state religion changed with the monarch: Edwardà Mary (Philip)à Elizabeth. Elizabeth tried to find a “middle way” in the struggle between the Catholics and Protestants but she prosecuted everyone who didn’t accept her reforms.
The Catholic Counter Reformation
Within the catholic church there were persons who understood the need for reforms but they still wanted to fight the protestants. This is known as The Counter Reformation. The Catholic leaders meet in Trent 1545-1563. This “meeting” resulted in that the traditional catholic doctrines were reaffirmed, the decision that priests had to get better training and that reforms were to be made in the church administration and finances. There was also a decision about reviving the Inquisition and that there should be a limitation of what books a catholic could read.
· Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits
The voyages
At the end of the 1400s the Europeans went out on long voyages to discover the world and find new routs for trade. The great voyages which took place were typical for the ideas of the Renaissance as they were expressions for curiosity, experimenting and new techniques. During the period the great powers increased their powers. First Spain and Portugal led the way, then England France and The Netherlands took charge.
Motives :
· Economic motives. The Europeans wanted to find new ways for the trade with luxurious goods from The Far East.
o The Turks had taken control over the trade routes over land that existed.
o Spain and Portugal wanted to compete with the Italian cities. They dominated European trade with the far east on the Mediterranean.
o Monarchs wanted to build great Empires.
· The Catholic church wanted to spread Christianity
· The Europeans wanted explore the world, find new land and increase wealth.
Preconditions:
New techniques. Advances in technology made the voyages possible. For example:
· better ships for ocean voyages (the three masted caravel)
· the use of the magnetic compass
· better maps (using the knowledge from especially Arab travellers)
· Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) started a school for sailors in Portugalà better knowledge.
· Many rulers sponsored the voyages because they wanted to increase their empires and find wealthy colonies.
Portugal
During the 1400s several strong and ambitious monarchs led Portugal. They wanted to increase their country’s wealth and power. To find new ways for the trade with the far east the Portuguese started to explore the west coast of Africa, They set up trading stations along the coast. From the Africans they bought gold (à The Gold Coast) and in time they started the trade with slaves.
· In 1488 B. Diaz reached and rounded THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. The Portuguese had found the way to India.
· In 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded the same cape and sailed to India. He reached Calcutta (Calicut) 1498.
Spain
In the 1400s the Spanish had to conquer the Muslims to win control over the Iberian/Pyrenean peninsula. When they had taken control over the peninsula and united the country they wanted to take part in the profitable trade with Asia.
· In 1492 Columbus sailed to the East Indies. He was trying to find a new way to India. People held conflicting views on how big the earth is. Some thought that it was possible to sail around the world and reach The Far East on one voyage where the food and water would last. This was Columbus intentions but neither he nor anyone else, wasn’t aware of the American continents.
The treaty of Tordesillas
The rivalry between Spain and Portugal increased. The pope arranged a settlement, The Treaty of Tordesillas 1494. According to this Spain had the right to sail west of the border that was drawn and Portugal east of the border. This resulted in that the Portuguese continued to explore Africa and The Far East while Spain started to explore the “New World”.
Examples of some more explorers:
Amerigo Vespucci, Balboa (the way to the pacific), Magellan, Drake (rounded the w. 1580)
England, France and The Netherlands ignored the Treaty of Tordesillas. They continued to sail along the north coast of America. An important goal was to find The North West Passage.
· 1497 Cabot
· 1424 Verranzano (Fr.)
· 1529 Cartier
The Passage was not found.
The trade with the far East and the dominating powers:
The Portuguese dominated the trade with the luxurious spices (for example pepper, cinnamon and nutmeg) but the Netherlands, France and England tried to compete with them. In the end these countries replaced Portugal’s leading position.
Under the lead of governor Albuquerque Portugal built up an important trading empire. The Portuguese didn’t treat the Arab merchants they met very well. They tortured them
burned their ships.
When the Netherlands had gained the leading role in the area in the 1600s they were as ruthless as the Portuguese had been.
In 1542 a Portuguese ship was set out of course and reached the coast of Japan. A new source of trade had opened.
The Japanese and the Chinese saw the Europeans as barbarians. And the Europeans didn’t bring many goods they were interested in (except guns). By 1639 the Japanese had decided to expel every foreigners. They only allowed one Dutch ship a year to Nagasaki.
The first colonies in America
Spain sent out conquistadors to conquer The New World. The conquistadors established outposts and the crown of Spain were given parts of the treasures they found.
· Cortez: 1519. Cortez formed alliances with the Indian tribes that they meet and that was under the rule of the Aztec Empire. At first the conquistadors had an agreement with the Aztecs but when they revolted the Europeans destroyed the Aztec Empire.
· Pizzaro: 1528. Pizzaro reached the Inca Empire in which a civil war was going on.
Within 15 years all the Indian empires in South America had fallen.
Spain set up strong centralised governments in South America. The new land was divided into provinces. This rule lasted for 300 years.
Settlers in the New World were granted ecomiendas from the Spanish government. In practice this resulted in a system of forced labour which bound the Indians to the land. The Indians were also forced to work in gold and silver mines. A plantation system grew up.
Spanish missionaries condemned the way in which the Indians were treated. Some laws were taken to protect the rights of the Indians. For example laws to forbid slavery and protect the Indians right to own cattle and raise crops.
The Indian population decreased dramatically during the 1500s (about 26 millionsà under 2 millions).
From the New World the settlers sent gold, solver, cacao, coffee, and from The East Indies the most important goods were sugar and tobacco.
The slave trade
The Portuguese started to bring slaves from Africa to America and in time this trade grew. The slaves suffered hardships on the Middle Passage as they didn’t get enough water and food. Many of the slaves died on the ships.
North America
· England: started to get interested in the new world during the 1500s.
· France: started to get interested in the new world during the 1600s
· The Netherlands: started to get interested in the new world during the 1600s.
It wasn’t until the early 1600s that these countries started to explore America. All of them focused on exploring North America.
· In the early 1600 Dutch settlers built settlements along the Hudson river. Large estates were granted “patrons”
· In the beginning The French government did little to encourage people to settle in America. It was the French protestants who moved to the New World. The French explored and settled down in the north. In the late 1600s France became more interested in colonizing America and during this period Louisiana were formed, named after king Louis XIV.
· The English government encouraged people to settle down in the New World. Between1630 and 1700 the colonies population grew from 900 to 200 000 people. The English eventually formed 13 colonies. The colonies had elected assemblies.
· A Swedish settlement grew up in Delaware. In 1655 this colony became a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland.
During the 1600s France, England and the Netherlands were fighting over the power in North America.
The Commercial Revolution
The Europeans voyages resulted in a commercial revolution in Europe.
During the 1400s the population in Europe grew and the economy got better.
Increased populationà The demand for clothes and foods increasesà many people move to the cities à to keep people in the countryside to cultivate and supply the growing population with food the price for land decreased.
Another consequence of the increase in economy was growing local and long distance trade. The merchants became an even more important group in society than they had been before. The most successful of them dominated the economic life as well as politics in their cities and even in their countries. A good example of this is the Medici family in Florence.
The merchants invested in the European voyages. However these investments were a risk with money. The merchants who took these risks were called entrepreneurs. To reduce the risk the entrepreneurs developed a system of insurance, they collaborated in partnerships so that they could share the cost if a voyage failed and they also tried to reduce the risk by investing their in different businesses. This way they didn’t risk losing all of their money if one investment failed.
To invest the merchants and the monarchs (as they often supported voyages) needed money. They turned to rich middle class families such as the Medici family. These families became the “bankers of Europe”.
Joint stock companies grew up. These companies sold shares to investors and a group of merchants could through these form trading companies. A company like this could get a charter from the monarch which said that the company had exclusive right to trade in a specific area. Some of these companies had wide power and influence.
The growing trade resulted in a growing need for coined money. The coins were made of gold, silver and copper. The Europeans had limited access to gold and silver. The Spanish were successful and found gold and silver deposits in the New World (Mexico and Peru).
Mercantilism
During the 1500s the rulers learned that they couldn’t focus on collecting and storing as much gold and silver as possible. They realised that trade was the best way to have a strong economy was through trade. In the 1600s the idea of mercantilism were spread.
· Selling manufactured goods were more profitable than selling raw materials.
· A nation should be self sufficient
· Rulers should support industries
· Colonies were important
Consequences of the commercial revolution:
· Guilds influence decreased because they regulated the production too tightlyà this gave as a result that the “domestic system” developed. Entrepreneurs sent raw materials to farms where women and men produced the goods the merchants had asked for.
· Some industries grew up which needed big investments to get started (ex. The printing industry).à capitalists.
· The upper classes wealth increased and they built palaces and filled them with treasuries.
Finally…
The Europeans had now expanded their horizons in many areas (geographical, economical, cultural). As Europeans dominated wherever they came they many times saw themselves and their own traditions as superior and they thought they should civilise the world outside Europe.
The Age of Absolute Monarchs
From the 1500s to the 1700s monarchs increased their power enormously. During the period the foundation of present Europe was built. The great powers France, England and the Holy Roman Empire were joined by new great powers, Russia and Prussia.
Spain:
· Philip II of Spain (Habsburg). The Habsburgs were dukes of Austria. Through marriages the family built up an enormous empire which reached its high during the reign of Charles V 1516-1565. He ruled over the Holy Roman Empire and over Spain, with the colonies that belonged to the country. In 1556 he divided his empire between his son Philip and brother. Philip inherited Spain.
· Philips Spain became very powerful and he ruled as an ABSOLUTE MONARCH.
· Philip ruled from his castle Escorial.
· He wanted to restore the power of the Catholic church.
· During Philips reign Spain was involved in many wars.
o With France over the control of Italy
o Attacks on Turkish strongholds in the Mediterranean. At Lepanto 1571 Spain defeated the Turkish navy.
o The civil war in the Spanish Netherlands. He wanted to centralise power and this led to conflict with the Spanish part of the Netherlands. The Spanish Netherlands was an important economic trade centre in which the reformation was widely spread in contrast to the catholic Spain. The people in the Spanish Netherlands didn’t like that Philip always put the interest of Spain before their own “country”. The struggle between the two was long. Philip sent troops to the area and a commander was appointed to rule. His rule was hard and a lot of people died. In 1581 the northern part of the Netherlands declared themselves freeà The Dutch Netherlands. The southern part remained as a part in the Spanish empire. The Dutch Netherlands developed as an important and leading commercial power.
o England was concerned with the Spanish power and therefore they supported the provinces of the Netherlands that revolted against Philips Spain. English captains attacked Spanish ports and ships. England didn’t condemn the captains (for example Drake) acting as pirates. In 1588 Philip sent THE SPANISH ARMADA towards England. The battle ended with the victory of the much smaller easy moved English ships.
· Spain lost the position as one of the strongest powers in Europe at the end of the 1500s. The empire was huge but had several problems :
o The country depended on gold and silver from America. The treasury was drained due to among other things expensive war payments. à Spain had to borrow moneyà The treasures fell into the hands of foreign bankers.
o More and more coins were producedà Inflation
o The Moriscoes were victims of the Inquisition.
France
Between 1562-1598 France was characterised by wars of religion. On St. Bartholomew’s Day 1572 10 000 Huguenots were killed. They had come to Paris to celebrate the marriage between Marguerite Medici and Henry of Navarre (Huguenot). The Huguenots blamed Catherine Medici, the brides mother. A civil war followed.
Henry of Navarre tried to end the war. He converted into Catholicism because it was the dominating religion in Paris (“Paris is well worth a mass”). However, this didn’t stop the conflict. In 1598 the Edict of Nantes was signed. Huguenots were given freedom of worship and churches.
Henry IV of Navarre left his throne to his son Louis XIII.
· In 1615 the Estate General meet for the last time before 1789 (175 years).
· Richelieu was the kings adviser and he worked hard to increase the monarchs power. He also was a supporter of mercantilism.
Louis XIV
Louise XIV was four years old when he inherited the throne 1643. His mother Anna of Austria and Mazarin ruled in his place until he became 23. He ruled for 54 years as a very good example of an absolute monarch.
During his reign France was the most powerful country in Europe. “I am the state” I have divine right to rule Louis said.
· He reorganized the army which still had the structure of a feudal army. He made the soldiers fight for the king and not for any other lord. The army increased from 100 000- 400 000 soldiers.
· He appointed the intendants who should rule the provinces himself.
· He wanted to make France a strong catholic country which resulted the cansallation of the Edict of Nantes.
· Versailles was made centre for his reign and power.
· The nobles were made into the kings servants.
Problems:
· The court life which Louis XIV built up was very expensive and money was needed.
· Colbert (the finance minister) supported the idea of mercantilism. He increased the tax system (Though the noble and the middle class didn’t pay taxes). He promoted trade. For example he eliminated some local tariffs on goods and increased tariffs on goods from other countries. Colbert’s economic politic was successful but Louis XIV spent a lot of money on wars with other countries as he wanted to extend France.
· During his reign France was at war for 30 years. The most important war was the war of the Spanish Succession. Other European states united to prevent France from uniting Spain with France. In the Peace of Utrecht 1713 Louis had to agree that the Spanish throne never should be united with the French. Louis grandson became king of Spain as Philip V.
Louis never solved the problems of his country’s big debts.
The German states:
Germany was made up by hundreds small states in theory under the rule of the Emperor, but in practice they were very independent. When an emperor died the seven leading princes met to elect a new emperor. They always elected someone from the Habsburg family because this was the most powerful family in Germany as they ruled in Austria, Hungary and Bohemia.
The reformation resulted in a division among the German states. Another thing which caused division was the constant struggle between the Emperor and the princes over the power. The split caused by the reformation resulted in the Thirty Years’ War, 1618-1648.
When the Emperor decided that protestant worship no longer was allowed in Bohemia the protestants revolted by throwing the Emperor’s officials out of a window of the castle in Prague. This was the spark of the Thirty Years’ War.
In the beginning the religious issues dominated in the conflict. The Protestant princes were supported by Sweden, Denmark and the Dutch Netherlands and the Catholics, led by the Emperor, were supported by Spain. In time the conflict over territorial and political issues became more important. Richelieu and France supported the protestants because he didn’t want the Habsburg to be to powerful.
The war was a disaster for Germany as foreign armies invaded the land and destroyed and burned down cities and the countryside. There are historians who says that the German population dropped from 21 million in 1618 to about 13.5 million in 1648.
The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Emperor didn’t reach the goal to strengthen the royal power. About 300 German states were guaranteed their independence. The peace treaty also acknowledge many territorial changes. The Swiss confederation and the Dutch Netherlands were declared independent. Sweden got control over parts of the North- and Baltic sea, and France gained control over parts of Lorraine an Alsace.
Prussia
The prince of Brandenburg gained more than any other German prince in the Peace of Westphalia. Fredrik William Hohenzollern established a strong rule over his country and he created a big powerful army. With this strong army the Hohenzollerns expanded their power (about the “junkers”). During the 1700s their country was transformed to an important European monarchy. Characteristic for this country was the big strong army and discipline and order. Fredric I encouraged protestants to settle down in Prussia. His son Fredric II inherited the throne and he ruled the country with firm hand as an absolute monarch inspired by the enlightenment.
Austria
The Austrian Habsburgs struggled to establish the power of their empire (Austria, Bohemia and Hungary). The Empire was characterised by different peoples and languages in the different parts of the country.
· The Pragmatic Sanction guaranteed that the Habsburg lands would not be divided and that Maria Theresa could be the ruler over the empire. When the emperor died and M-T were suppose to take over the throne a civil war broke out, War of the Austrian Succession. The war was widened into a European war and Prussia was trying to win the power over Austria. They were supported by France while England and the Dutch Netherlands supported M.-T. A conflict between France and England was a consequence. While France won many victories in Europe England won many victories in the colonies. The war ended with a treaty that said that every country should be returned the territory that belonged to them before the war.
· Austria was led by an absolute monarch.
· Austria was during the 1700s one of the leading states in Europe. A balance of power grew up between the great powers in Europe.
The Seven Years’ War 1756- 1763
The struggle between the European powers led to the Seven Years’ War, which was fought on three continents, Europe, Asia and North America.
· France and England fought in North America and in India. At the peace Britain won Canada and all French land east of the Mississippi.
· Prussia fought with France, Austria and Russia. The three had formed an alliance when Prussia invaded Saxony. At the withdrawal of Russia from the alliance Prussia could be saved from a disaster.
The Ottoman Empire
· In 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.
· In the 1500s The Ottoman empire was extended. The county was very tolerant to different faiths. The Empires height was reached under the rule of Suleiman 1520- 1566. After his death the Ottoman Empire started to decline. Though it survived until as late as 1918.
Russia
· During the 1400s and 1500s Russia emerged as an powerful state in Eastern Europe. Though after the death of tsar Ivan IV in 1584 it would take many years before Russia got a strong leader again. The Period was called the Time of Troubles. In 1613 Michael Romanov was elected tsar and now order was restored in Russia. He was elected but worked hard to end the system of electing monarchs. By flirting with the nobles (for example giving them total control over the peasants) the Romanovs reached their goal, and the family ruled Russia until 1917.
· During the 1600 the peasants of Russia lived under serfdom and were treated as slaves.
· Russia were expanded eastward during the 1600s.
· Peter the Great: became tsar in 1682 and during his reign Russia transformed into much more modern state which took part among the great powers of Europe. He learned western technology and customs which he introduced in Russia. Peter also expanded Russia’s borders. His main goal was to reach the Baltic sea from where his country could trade with Western Europe. He reached his goal after against with Sweden. Peter built a new capital, St Petersburg. Peter died in 1725.
· Catherine the Great: entered the throne in 1762. C. won the support of the nobles but made conditions for the peasants worse. The peasants revolted against the empress but the revolt failed. C. foreign policy was aggressive and the boarders were expanded. She ruled as an absolute monarch inspired by the enlightenment.
Poland
During the 1700s Poland was divided three times (1772, 1773 , 1795) by the great powers, Russia, Prussia and Austria. The once powerful nation (in the 1400s and 1500s) were in the end eliminated until 1919. This was due to the chaotic way in which Poland was ruled.
England:
England was one of Europe’s great powers. But the monarch never won the status of an absolute monarch even though the country was ruled by powerful monarchs during the 1500s. The struggle over the power between the monarch and the parliament is characteristic for England during the 1500s and 1600s. The differences was shown in struggle over the economy, religious issues and political power.
In 1640 a civil war broke out. The parliament won and the king, Charles I, is executed. England becomes a republic --> Oliver Cromwell becomes military dictator in England. When he died the monarchy was restored.
When Charles II dies new conflicts’ between the parliament and the monarch results in a revolt by the parliament. The king had to flee the country. A new king is installed. This happening is called the GLORIOUS REVOLUTION.