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Paris Summit Confrence:
U-2 Crisis of 1960
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U–2 with fictitious NASA markings and serial number. NASA Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base on 6 May 1960 (NASA)
The U–2 Crisis of 1960 occurred when an American U–2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The U.S. denied the true purpose of the plane, but were forced to admit it when the U.S.S.R produced the living pilot and the largely intact plane to corroborate their claim of being spied on aerially. The incident worsened East–West relations during the Cold War and was a great embarrassment for the United States.
On May 1, 1960, fifteen days before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit conference in Paris, a U.S. Lockheed U–2 spy plane, piloted by Francis Gary Powers, left Peshawar, Pakistan intending to overfly the Soviet Union and land at Bodø, Norway. The goal of the mission was to photograph ICBM development sites in and around Sverdlovsk and Plesetsk in the Soviet Union. Attempts to intercept the plane by Soviet fighters failed due to the U–2’s extreme altitude, but eventually one of the fourteen SA–2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles launched at the plane managed to get close enough. According to Soviet defector Viktor Belenko, a Soviet fighter pursuing Powers was caught and destroyed in the missile salvo.[1] Powers’s aircraft was badly damaged, and crashed near Sverdlovsk, deep inside Soviet territory. Powers was captured after making a parachute landing.
Four days after Powers issued a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had “gone missing” north of Turkey.[2] The press release speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, even claiming that “the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties.” To bolster this, a U–2 plane was quickly painted in NASA colors and shown to the media.
The wreck of Francis Gary Powers’s U–2.
U–2 incident exhibit at the National Cryptologic Museum.After hearing this, Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev announced to the Supreme Soviet, and thus the world, that a “spyplane” had been shot down, whereupon the U.S. issued a statement claiming that it was a “weather research aircraft” which had strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had “difficulties with his oxygen equipment” while flying over Turkey. The Eisenhower White House, presuming Powers was dead, gracefully acknowledged that this might be the same plane, but still proclaimed that “there was absolutely no deliberate attempt to violate Soviet airspace and never has been”, and attempted to continue the facade by grounding all U–2 aircraft to check for “oxygen problems”.
On May 7, Khrushchev announced:[3]
“
I must tell you a secret. When I made my first report I deliberately did not say that the pilot was alive and well… and now just look how many silly things [the Americans] have said.”
Not only was Powers still alive, but his plane was also essentially intact. The Soviets managed to recover the surveillance camera and even developed the photographs. Powers’s survival pack, including 7500 rubles and jewelry for women, was also recovered. Today a large part of the wreck as well as many items from the survival pack are on display at the Central Museum of Armed Forces in Moscow. A small piece of the plane was returned to the United States and is on display at the National Cryptologic Museum.[4]
[edit] Aftermath
The trial of Francis Gary Powers.The Paris Summit between Dwight Eisenhower and Nikita Khrushchev collapsed, in large part because Eisenhower refused to make apologies over the incident, demanded by Khrushchev. Khrushchev left the talks on May 16.
Powers pleaded guilty and was convicted of espionage on August 19 and sentenced to 3 years’ imprisonment and 7 years of hard labor. He served one and three-quarter years of the sentence before being exchanged for Rudolf Abel on February 10, 1962. The exchange occurred on the Glienicke Bridge in Potsdam, Germany.
Another result of the crisis was that the US Corona spy satellite project was accelerated, while the CIA accelerated the development of the A–12 OXCART supersonic spyplane that first flew in 1962 and began developing the Lockheed D-21/M-21 unmanned drone
Automation:
Automation
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KUKA Industrial robots engaged in vehicle underbody assemblyAutomation (ancient Greek: = self dictated), roboticization[1] or industrial automation or numerical control is the use of control systems such as computers to control industrial machinery and processes, replacing human operators. In the scope of industrialization, it is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and in daily experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and organizational tools to create complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
There are still many jobs which are in no immediate danger of automation. No device has been invented which can match the human eye for accuracy and precision in many tasks; nor the human ear. Even the admittedly handicapped human is able to identify and distinguish among far more scents than any automated device. Human pattern recognition, language recognition, and language production ability is well beyond anything currently envisioned by automation engineers.
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control of almost any industrial process. (It was these devices that were feared to be vulnerable to the "Y2K bug", with such potentially dire consequences, since they are now so ubiquitous throughout the industrial world.)
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers, such as entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further automated control or emergency response. Service personnel who monitor and control these interfaces are often referred to as stationary engineers.
Another form of automation involving computers is test automation, where computer-controlled automated test equipment is programmed to simulate human testers in manually testing an application. This is often accomplished by using test automation tools to generate special scripts (written as computer programs) that direct the automated test equipment in exactly what to do in order to accomplish the tests
Finally, the last form of automation is software-automation, where a computer by means of macro recorder software records the sequence of user actions (mouse and keyboard) as a macro for playback at a later time.
Contents [hide]
1 Social issues of automation
2 Current emphases in automation
3 Safety issues of automation
4 Automation Tools
5 See also
6 References
[edit] Social issues of automation
Automation raises several important social issues. Among them is automation's impact on employment. Indeed, the Luddites were a social movement of English textile workers in the early 1800s who protested against Jacquard's automated weaving looms— often by destroying such textile machines— that they felt threatened their jobs. Since then, the term luddite has come to be applied freely to anyone who is against any advance of technology.
Some argue automation leads to higher employment. One author made the following case. When automation was first introduced, it caused widespread fear. It was thought that the displacement of human workers by computerized systems would lead to severe unemployment. In fact, the opposite has often been true, e.g., the freeing up of the labor force allowed more people to enter higher skilled jobs, which are typically higher paying. One odd side effect of this shift is that "unskilled labor" now benefits in many "first-world" nations, because fewer people are available to fill such jobs.
Some argue the reverse, at least in the long term. They argue that automation has only just begun and short-term conditions might partially obscure its long-term impact. Many manufacturing jobs left the United States during the early 1990s, but a one-time massive increase in IT jobs (which are only now being outsourced), at the same time, offset this.
It appears that automation does devalue labor through its replacement with less-expensive machines; however, the overall effect of this on the workforce as a whole remains unclear. Today automation of the workforce is quite advanced, and continues to advance increasingly more rapidly throughout the world and is encroaching on ever more skilled jobs, yet during the same period the general well-being of most people in the world (where political factors have not muddied the picture) has increased dramatically. What role automation has played in these changes has not been well studied.
One irony is that in recent years, outsourcing has been blamed for the loss of jobs in which automation is the more likely culprit[2]. This argument is supported by the fact that in the U.S., the number of insourced jobs is increasing at a greater rate than those outsourced[3]. Further, the rate of decline in U.S. manufacturing employment is no greater than the worldwide average: 11 percent between 1995 and 2002[4]. In the same period, China, which has been frequently criticized for "stealing" American manufacturing jobs, lost 15 million manufacturing jobs of its own (about 15% of its total), compared with 2 million lost in the U.S.[5].
Millions of human telephone operators and answerers, throughout the world, have been replaced wholly (or almost wholly) by automated telephone switchboards and answering machines (not by Indian or Chinese workers). Thousands of medical researchers have been replaced in many medical tasks from 'primary' screeners in electrocardiography or radiography, to laboratory analyses of human genes, sera, cells, and tissues by automated systems. Even physicians have been partly replaced by remote, automated robots and by highly sophisticated surgical robots that allow them to perform remotely and at levels of accuracy and precision otherwise not normally possible for the average physician. See Robot doctors and Surgical robots.
[edit] Current emphases in automation
Currently, for manufacturing companies, the purpose of automation has shifted from increasing productivity and reducing costs, to broader issues, such as increasing quality and flexibility in the manufacturing process.
The old focus on using automation simply to increase productivity and reduce costs was seen to be short-sighted, because it is also necessary to provide a skilled workforce who can make repairs and manage the machinery. Moreover, the initial costs of automation were high and often could not be recovered by the time entirely new manufacturing processes replaced the old. (Japan's "robot junkyards" were once world famous in the manufacturing industry.)
Automation is now often applied primarily to increase quality in the manufacturing process, where automation can increase quality substantially. For example, automobile and truck pistons used to be installed into engines manually. This is rapidly being transitioned to automated machine installation, because the error rate for manual installment was around 1-1.5%, but has been reduced to 0.00001% with automation. Hazardous operations, such as oil refining, the manufacturing of industrial chemicals, and all forms of metal working, were always early contenders for automation.
Another major shift in automation is the increased emphasis on flexibility and convertibility in the manufacturing process. Manufacturers are increasingly demanding the ability to easily switch from manufacturing Product A to manufacturing Product B without having to completely rebuild the production lines.
[edit] Safety issues of automation
One safety issue with automation is that while it is often viewed as a way to minimize human error in a system, increasing the degree and levels of automation also increases the consequences of error. For example, The Three Mile Island nuclear event was largely due to over-reliance on "automated safety" systems. Unfortunately, in the event, the designers had never anticipated the actual failure mode which occurred, so both the "automated safety" systems and their human overseers were innundated with vast amounts of largely irrelevant information. With automation we have machines designed by (fallible) people with high levels of expertise, which operate at speeds well beyond human ability to react, being operated by people with relatively more limited education (or other failings, as in the Bhopal disaster or Chernobyl disaster). Ultimately, with increasing levels of automation over ever larger domains of activities, when something goes wrong the consequences rapidly approach the catastrophic. This is true for all complex systems however, and one of the major goals of safety engineering for nuclear reactors, for example, is to make safety mechanisms as simple and as foolproof as possible (see Safety engineering and passive safety).
George Meany (1894 - 1980)
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George Meany was the builder of the modern AFL-CIO. He was born into an Irish Catholic family in New York City and spent most of his boyhood in the Bronx. His father, Michael Meany, was president of the Bronx local of the United Association of Plumbers and Pipe FittersCand in 1910, Meany joined the union as an apprentice at the age of 16, working as a plumber in New York for the next decade.
George Meany
In 1920, Meany was elected as the youngest member of the local union's executive board and two years later became a full-time business agent. During the 1920s, Meany was active on behalf of his local in both the New York City Central Labor Council and the New York State Federation of Labor, where he ran successfully for president in 1934.
As head of the New York state labor movement, Meany built a powerful political organization, passing one of the nation's first unemployment insurance laws and forging support for the reelection of President Franklin Roosevelt in 1936. Meany also led a successful strike for fair wages of craftsmen working on the public works projects of the New Deal.
Meany was elected secretary-treasurer of the national American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1939. As second in command to President William Green, Meany played an important role in the formation of the War Labor Board, which helped spur the growth of union membership during the second world war. Meany took responsibility for the federation's international activities. While still in New York, working with the Jewish Labor Committee, he had actively supported German trade unionists fleeing the Nazis. He insisted on the inclusion of workers' rights in the postwar Marshall Plan. His leadership led to the creation of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions at the end of the war, and he fought for free trade unions around the world for all of his career.
When a hostile Congress passed the repressive Taft-Hartley Act in 1947, Meany established and led Labor's League for Political Education, the first full-scale federation effort to register, educate and mobilize union members. Labor's strength helped elect Harry Truman as president in 1948.Meany was elected to the presidency of the AFL in 1952 on the death of William Green. He assumed the leadership of a divided labor movement. Many of the nation's industrial unions were part of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which had been created in the 1930s. He immediately sought to unify the movement, an effort that culminated in the founding convention of the AFL-CIO in 1955. Meany was elected unanimously as the first president of the merged labor federation.
Meany modernized and expanded the national AFL-CIO, making the organization a powerful voice in the nation's political and legislative arena. Under his leadership, the American labor movement won unprecedented gains for ordinary working Americans, especially during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. Meany, a staunch supporter of civil and equal rights his entire career, put the federation's muscle behind the civil rights movement, insisting that the historic 1964 Civil Rights Act call for an end to both workplace and community discrimination. The AFL-CIO was also the center of support for important social programs such as Medicare. His presidency also saw the creation of important new programs such as the Labor Studies Center, constituency organizations for women, minorities and retirees and training programs for minorities. Meany fully supported the organizing of the fledgling United Farm Workers union.
Meany viewed the labor movement as more than a "special interest" it was rather the only organization in American life that spoke for the common citizen. He termed it the "people's lobby." He believed strongly that free trade unions were an essential part of a democratic society—and he fought against both political extremists and corrupt influences. During the 25 years he led the merged AFL-CIO, he was the nation's strongest voice for human and civil rights, in America and around the world, speaking out against colonial exploitation of the developing world, supporting the state of Israel, fighting for the freedom of the states of Central Europe, advocating for Soviet Jews and supporting the fights against South African apartheid and against the military dictatorships in Spain and Chile.
As much as he valued the labor movement, George Meany valued his family and his church—he and his wife of more than 60 years, the former Eugenia McMahon, had three daughters, Regina, Eileen and Genevieve. In 1979, Meany stepped down as the president of the AFL-CIO and turned over its leadership to his second in command, Lane Kirkland. He died in 1980
Emmett Till
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Emmett Till
Born July 25, 1941
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Died August 28, 1955
Tallahatchie River near Money, Mississippi, USA
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Emmett Louis "Bobo" Till (July 25, 1941 – August 28, 1955) was an African-American teenager from Chicago, Illinois who was brutally murdered in a region of Mississippi known as the Mississippi Delta in the small town of Money in Leflore County. His murder was one of the key events that energized the nascent American Civil Rights Movement. The main suspects for the crime—both Caucasian men—were acquitted, but later admitted to committing the crime. Till's mother had an open casket funeral to let everyone see how her son had been brutally killed. He had been shot and beaten; he was then thrown into the Tallahatchie River with a seventy-five pound cotton gin fan tied to his neck with barbed wire to work as a weight. His body remained in the river for three days until it was discovered and retrieved by two fishermen.
Contents [hide]
1 Events
1.1 Murder
1.2 Funeral
1.3 Trial
1.4 Aftermath of the trial
2 Popular culture
2.1 Recent investigations
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
[edit] Events
Emmett Till was the son of Mamie Till and Louis Till. Emmett's mother was born to John and Alma Carthan in the small Delta town of Webb, Mississippi ("the Delta" being the traditional name for the area of northwestern Mississippi, at the confluence of the Yazoo and Mississippi Rivers). When she was two years old, her family moved to Illinois. Emmett's mother largely raised him on her own; she and Louis Till had separated in 1942.
In 1955, Till and his cousin were sent for a summer stay with Till's great-uncle, Moses Wright, who lived in Money, Mississippi (another small town in the Delta, eight miles north of Greenwood).
Prior to his departure for the Delta, Till's mother cautioned him to "mind his manners" with white people.
Till's mother understood that race relations in Mississippi were very different from those in Chicago. The state had seen many lynchings during the South's lynching era (ca. 1876-1930), and racially motivated murders were still not unfamiliar, especially in the "Delta" region (the traditional name for northwest Mississippi) where Till was going to visit. Racial tensions were also on the rise after the United States Supreme Court's 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education to end segregation in public education.
Till arrived on August 21. On August 24, he joined other teenagers as they went to Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market to get some candy and soda. The teens were children of sharecroppers and had been picking cotton all day. The market was owned by a husband and wife, Roy Bryant and Carolyn Bryant, and mostly catered to the local sharecropper population. Till's cousin and several black youths, all under 16, were reported to have been with Till in the store.
Depending on who tells the story, as Till was leaving the store, he either whistled at or physically assaulted and propositioned Carolyn Bryant. She stood up and stormed to her car. The boys were terrified thinking she might return with a pistol and ran away. The news of this greatly angered her husband when he heard of it upon his return from out of town several days later.
Bryant's Store in Money, Mississippi. This picture was taken in 2005Till's cousin, Wheeler Parker, Jr., who was with him at the store, claims Till did nothing but whistle at the woman. "He loved pranks, he loved fun, he loved jokes . . . in Mississippi, people didn't think the same jokes were funny." Carolyn Bryant later asserted that Till had grabbed her at the waist and asked her for a date. She said the young man also used "unprintable" words. He had a slight stutter and some have conjectured that Bryant might have misinterpreted what Till said.
By the time twenty-four-year-old Roy Bryant returned to Money from a road trip three days after his wife’s encounter with Till, it seemed that everyone in Tallahatchie County had heard about the incident, in every conceivable version; and Bryant decided that he and his half-brother, J.W. Milam, 36, would meet around 1:00 a.m. on Sunday to "teach the boy a lesson".
[edit] Murder
At about 12:30 a.m. on August 27, Bryant and his half brother, J.W. Milam, kidnapped Emmett Till from his great-uncle's house in the middle of the night. According to witnesses, they drove him to a weathered shed on a plantation in neighboring Sunflower County, where they brutally beat him. The fan around his neck was to weigh down his body, which they dropped into the Tallahatchie River near Glendora, another small cotton town, north of Money.
The brothers and police tried to convince the people that Emmett Till was still in Chicago and that the beaten boy was someone else but the only way that he was recognized was by the ring on his finger that was his dad's before he had died. His mother had given it to him the day before he left for Money. The brothers were soon under official suspicion for the boy's disappearance and were arrested August 29 after spending the night with relatives living in Ruleville, just miles away from the scene of the crime.
Both men admitted they had taken the boy from his great-uncle's yard but claimed they turned him loose the same night. Word got out that Till was missing and soon NAACP civil rights leader Medgar Evers, the state field secretary, and Amzie Moore, head of the Bolivar County chapter, became involved, disguising themselves as cotton pickers and going into the cotton fields in search of any information that would help find the young visitor from Chicago.
After collecting stories from ordinary blacks first hand, Amzie Moore, a Delta civil rights veteran and member of the Regional Council of ***** Leadership and the NAACP, asserted that whites had murdered and lynched over the years “more than 2,000" blacks and thrown their bodies into the Delta’s swamps and bayous.
Some supposed that relatives of Till were hiding him out of fear for the youth’s safety, or that he had been sent back to Chicago where he would be safe.
Moses Wright, a witness to Till's abduction told the Sheriff that a person who sounded like a woman had identified Till as "the one" after which the men had driven away with him. Bryant and Milam claimed they later found out Till was not "the one" who allegedly insulted Mrs. Bryant, and swore to Sheriff George Smith they had released him. They would later recant and confess after their acquittal.
In an editorial on Friday, September 2, Greenville journalist Hodding Carter, Jr. asserted that "people who are guilty of this savage crime should be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law," a brave suggestion for any Mississippi newspaper editor to make, Carter included.
[edit] Funeral
After Till's severely damaged body was found, he was put into a pine box and nearly buried, but Mamie Till wanted the body to come back to Chicago. A Tutwiler mortuary assistant worked all night to prepare the body as best he could so that Mamie Till could bring Emmett's body back to Chicago.
The Chicago funeral home had agreed not to open the casket, but Mamie Till fought it, and after the state of Mississippi would not allow the funeral home to open it, Mamie threatened to open it herself, insisting she had a right to see her son. After viewing the body, she also insisted on leaving the casket open for the funeral and allowing people to take photos because she wanted people to see how badly Till's body had been disfigured. News photographs of Till's mutilated corpse circulated around the country, notably appearing in Jet magazine, drawing intense public reaction. Some reports indicate up to 50,000 people viewed the body.
Emmett Till was buried September 6 in Burr Oak Cemetery in Alsip, Illinois. The same day, Bryant and Milam were indicted by a grand jury.
[edit] Trial
When Mamie Till came to Mississippi to testify at the trial, she stayed in the home of Dr. T.R.M. Howard in the all-black town of Mound Bayou. Others staying in Howard's home were black reporters, such as Cloyte Murdock of Ebony Magazine, key witnesses, and Congressman Charles Diggs of Michigan, the first chairman of the Congressional Black Caucus. Howard was a major civil rights leader and fraternal organization official in Mississippi, the head of the Regional Council of ***** Leadership (RCNL), and one of the wealthiest blacks in the state.
On the day before the trial, Frank Young, a black farm worker, came to Howard's home. He said that he had information indicating that Milam and Bryant had help in their crime. Young's allegations sparked an investigation that led to unprecedented cooperation between local law enforcement, the NAACP, the RCNL, black journalists, and local reporters. The trial began on September 19. Mose Wright, Emmett's great-uncle, was one of the main witnesses called up to speak. Pointing to one of the suspected killers, he said "Dar he," to refer to the man who had killed his nephew.
Another key witness for the prosecution was Willie Reed, an eighteen-year old high school student who lived on a plantation near Drew, Mississippi in Sunflower County. The prosecution had located him because of the investigation sparked by Young's information. Reed testified that he had seen a pickup truck outside of an equipment shed on a plantation near Drew managed by Leslie Milam, a brother of J.W. and Roy Bryant. He said that four whites, including J.W. Milam, were in the cab and three blacks were in the back, one of them Till. When the truck pulled into the shed, he heard human cries that sounded like a beating was underway. He did not identify the other blacks on the truck.
On September 23 the jury, made up of 12 white males, acquitted both defendants. Deliberations took just 67 minutes; one juror said they took a "soda break" to stretch the time to over an hour "to make it look good". The hasty acquittal outraged people throughout the United States and Europe, and energized the nascent Civil Rights Movement.
[edit] Aftermath of the trial
Even during the trial, Howard and black journalists such as James Hicks of the Baltimore Afro-American named several blacks who had allegedly been on the truck near Drew including three employees of J.W. Milam: Henry Lee Loggins, Levi 'Too-Tight' Collins, and Joe Willie Hubbard. In the months after the trial, both Hicks and Howard called for a federal investigation into charges that Sheriff H.C. Strider had locked up Collins and Loggins in jail to keep them from testifying.
In a January 1956 article in Look Magazine for which they were paid, J.W. Milam and Roy Bryant admitted to journalist William Bradford Huie that he and his brother had killed Till. They did not fear being tried again for the same crime because of the Constitutional double jeopardy protection. Milam claimed that initially their intention was to scare Till into line by pistol-whipping him and threatening to throw him off a cliff. Milam claimed that regardless of what they did to Till, he never showed any fear, never seemed to believe they would really kill him, and maintained a completely unrepentant, insolent, and defiant attitude towards them concerning his actions. Thus the brothers said they felt they were left with no choice but to fully make an example of Till. The story focused exclusively on the role of Milam and Bryant in the crime and did not mention the possible part played by others in the crime.
In February 1956 Howard's version of events of the kidnapping and murder, which stressed the possible involvement of Hubbard and Loggins, appeared in the booklet Time Bomb: Mississippi Exposed and the Full Story of Emmett Till by Olive Arnold Adams. At the same time a still unidentified white reporter using the pseudonym Amos Dixon wrote a series of articles in the California Eagle. The series put forward essentially the same thesis as Time Bomb but offered a more detailed description of the possible role of Loggins, Hubbard, Collins, and Leslie Milam. Time Bomb and Dixon's articles had no lasting impact in the shaping of public opinion. Huie's article became the most commonly accepted version of events.
In 1957 Huie returned to the story for Look Magazine in an article which indicated that local residents were shunning Milam and Bryant and that their stores were closed due to a lack of business.
Milam died of cancer in 1980 and Bryant died of cancer in 1994. The men never expressed any remorse for Till's death and seemed to feel that they had done no wrong. In fact, a few months before he died, Bryant complained bitterly in an interview that he had never made as much money off Till's death as he deserved and that it had ruined his life. Mamie (as Mamie Till Mobley) outlived them, dying at the age of 81 on January 6, 2003. That same year her autobiography Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime That Changed America (One World Books, co-written with Christopher Benson) was published.
In 1991, a seven-mile stretch of 71st street in Chicago was renamed "Emmett Till Road," after the slain boy.
[edit] Popular culture
The murder of Emmett Till was felt deeply by African-Americans, civil rights activists and many others. Artistic works drawing on the incident include the first play by eventual Nobel laureate Toni Morrison, poems by Langston Hughes, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Audre Lorde, and a song by Bob Dylan called "The Death of Emmett Till."
The James Baldwin play "Blues for Mister Charlie" is also loosely based on the case.
Boxer Muhammad Ali, 13 years old at the time of the murder, said in an interview that the news of the Till murder had a profound effect on him and how he viewed white people.
The 1990's Alternative Rock band Emmet Swimming is named after Emmett Till. According to the band, "the idea of the name was basically that a 14-year-old boy should be swimming in the river, not dying in it."
Recent fictionalized accounts include two award-winning novels: Bebe Moore Campbell's Your Blues Ain't Like Mine (1992) and Lewis Nordan's Wolf Whistle (1993).
The 2003 rap song "Through the Wire" by Kanye West uses the image of Till's mutilated face as a simile for West's physical appearance after a near-fatal car accident, demonstrating that after fifty years the murder is still firmly entrenched in the public memory.
The September 15, 2003 Boondocks comic strip had the following exchange:
-Huey: I was thinking... what would Emmett Till say to Kobe Bryant right now? -Caesar: You think you've got it bad? All I did was whistle!
The 2005 rap music video "Cadillacs On 22s" by David Banner shows Banner wearing a black T-shirt with the words "R.I.P. Emmett Till" printed on it.
In 2005, the play The State of Mississippi and the Face of Emmett Till premiered in the south for the first time at Dillard University in New Orleans. The show, written by David Barr, was performed again in October (as The Face Of Emmett Till) with a different cast at Coppin State University.
In 2005, a 38-mile stretch of U.S. Highway 49 north from Greenwood, Mississippi to Tutwiler, Mississippi was renamed in honor of Till.
In February 2006, the elementary school that Till had attended in Chicago (James McCosh Math & Science Academy) was renamed in his honor. At the renaming ceremony, plans for building an Emmett Till Museum on the school's grounds were discussed.
In 2006, the band Make Believe (band) released the album "Of Course", featuring the song "Pat Tillman, Emmett Till".
71st Street on Chicago's South Side is also called Emmett Till St.
Richard Powers' novel, "The Time of Our Singing", 2003, has a chapter telling this story.
[citation/review at http://www.januarymagazine.com/fiction/timeofsinging.html ]
In Marvel Comics Black Panther #23 there is a mention of Emmett Till.
Referred to in 'Cave *****', a track on Ice cube's 1993 album Lethal Injection: "Cuz everytime I turn on the TV / I see several brothers with she-devils / Smilin' cuz you out on a date / But sooner or later, the *****'ll yell rape / Soon as daddy found out you a ******* / He'll kill like he did Emmitt Till"
[edit] Recent investigations
In 2001, David T. Beito, associate professor at the University of Alabama and Linda Royster Beito, chair of the department of social sciences at Stillman College, were the first investigators in many decades to track down and interview on tape two key principals in the case: Henry Lee Loggins and Willie Reed. They were doing research for their biography of T.R.M. Howard. In his interview with the Beitos, Loggins denied that he had any knowledge of the crime or that he was one of the black men on the truck outside of the equipment shed near Drew. Reed repeated his testimony at the trial that he had seen three black men and four white men (including J.W. Milam) on the truck. When asked to identify the black men, however, he did not name Loggins as one of them. The Beitos also confirmed that Levi 'Too-Tight' Collins, another black man allegedly on this car, had died in 1993.
In 1996, Keith Beauchamp started background research for a feature film he planned to make about Till's murder, and asserted that as many as 14 individuals may have been involved. While conducting interviews he also encountered eyewitnesses who had never spoken out publicly before. As a result he decided to produce a documentary instead, and spent the next nine years creating The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till. The film led to calls by the NAACP and others for the case to be reopened. The documentary included lengthy interviews with Loggins and Reed, both of whom the Beitos had first tracked down and interviewed in 2001. Loggins repeated his denial of any knowledge of the crime. Beauchamp has consistently refused to name the fourteen individuals who he asserts took part in the crime, including the five who he claims are still alive.
On May 10, 2004, the United States Department of Justice announced that it was reopening the case to determine whether anyone other than Milam and Bryant was involved. Although the statute of limitations prevented charges being pursued under federal law, they could be pursued before the state court, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation and officials in Mississippi worked jointly on the investigation. As no autopsy had been performed on Till's body, it was exhumed on May 31, 2005 from the suburban Chicago cemetery where it was buried, and the Cook County coroner then conducted the autopsy. The body was reburied by relatives on June 4. It has been positively identified as that of Emmett Till.
In February 2007, the Jackson Clarion-Ledger reported that both the FBI and a Leflore County Grand Jury, which was empaneled by Joyce Chiles, a black prosecutor, had found no credible basis for Keith Beauchamp's claim that fourteen individuals took part in Till's abduction and murder or that any are still alive. The Grand Jury also decided not to pursue charges against Carolyn Bryant Donham, Roy Bryant's ex wife. Neither the FBI nor the Grand Jury found any credible evidence that Henry Lee Loggins, currently living in an Ohio nursing home, and identified by Beauchamp as a suspect who could be charged, had any role in the crime. Other than Loggins, Beauchamp still refuses to name the fourteen people who he says were involved although the FBI and District Attorney have now completed their investigations of his charges and he is free to go on the record. A story by Jerry Mitchell in the Clarion-Ledger on February 18 describes Beauchamp's allegation that fourteen or more were involved as a "legend."
The same article also labels as "legend" a rumor that Till had endured castration at the hands of his victimizers. The castration theory was first put forward uncritically in Beauchamp's "Untold Story" although Mamie Till-Mobley (Emmett's mother) had said in an earlier documentary directed by Stanley Nelson, "The Murder of Emmett Till," (2003) that her son's genitals were intact when she examined the corpse. The recent autopsy, as reported by Mitchell, confirmed Mobley-Till's original account and showed no evidence of castration.
In March 2007, Till's family was briefed by the FBI on the contents of its investigation. The FBI report released on March 29, 2007 found that Till died of a gunshot wound to the head and that he had broken wrist bones and skull and leg fractures.[1]
The Little Rock Nine
They didn't start out being known as the Little Rock Nine but now they are in America's history books together. Here is a brief glimpse at these former students and what they are doing today, 40 years after this momentus year.
These nine students are unanimous in proclaiming the true heroes of the crisis at Central High School were their parents, who supported them and kept the faith that the process was right and that what they endured would give them opportunities they deserved.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ernest Green
In 1958, he became the first black student to graduate from Central High School. He graduated from Michigan State University and served as Assistant Secretary of Housing and Urban Affairs under President Jimmy Carter. He currently is a managing partner and vice president of Lehman Brothers in Washington, D.C.
Elizabeth Eckford
The only one of the nine still living in Little Rock, Elizabeth made a career of the U.S. Army that included work as a journalist. In 1974, she returned to the home in which she grew up and is now a part-time social worker and mother of two sons.
Jefferson Thomas
He graduated from Central in 1960, following a year in which Little Rock's public high schools were ordered closed by the legislature to prevent desegregation. Today, he is an accountant with the U.S. Department of Defense and lives in Anaheim, Calif.
Dr. Terrence Roberts
Following the historic year at Central, his family moved to Los Angeles where he completed high school. He earned a doctorate degree and teaches at the University of California at Los Angeles and Antioc College. He also is a clinical psychologist.
Carlotta Walls Lanier
One of only three of the nine who eventually graduated from Central, she and Jefferson Thomas returned for their senior year in 1959. She graduated from Michigan State University and presently lives in Englewood, Colorado, where she is in real estate.
Minnijean Brown Trickey
She was expelled from Central High in February, 1958, after several incidents, including her dumping a bowl of chili on one of her antagonists in the school cafeteria. She moved with her husband to Canada during the Vietnam War protests of the 1960s and today is a writer and social worker in Ontario. Winterstar Productions is presently filming a documentary on her life.
Gloria Ray Karlmark
She graduated from Illinois Technical College and received a post-graduate degree in Stockholm, Sweden. She was a prolific computer science writer and at one time successfully published magazines in 39 countries. Now retired, she divides her time between homes in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and Stockholm, where her husband's family lives.
Thelma Mothershed-Wair
She graduated from college, then made a career of teaching. She lives in Belleville, Illinois, where she is a volunteer in a program for abused women.
Melba Pattillo Beals
She is an author and former journalist for People magazine and NBC and lives in San Francisco
In 1950, Linda Brown was a third grader living in Topeka, Kansas. In that year, her family became involved in one of the nation's most famous court cases, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Because she was African American, Linda Brown was forced to walk a long distance to catch a bus that took her to a school even farther away. She was not allowed to attend the elementary school that was only a few blocks from her home. Only white children could attend that school. Like Linda Brown, African American children around the country had to attend different schools from white children. Separating students because of their race is a form of segregation. Segregation is the separation of people based on race or religion.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) found 13 families from 4 different states who agreed to help fight segregation. The Brown family was one of those families. Linda Brown's father was the Reverend Oliver Leon Brown. He is the Brown named in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Although 13 families were involved in the case, only Brown's name was listed because it came first alphabetically. The plan was for each family to try to sign its children up to attend an all-white school. As expected, Linda Brown and the other children were refused admission. The refusals were then used as evidence, or proof, in what became a class-action lawsuit. A class-action lawsuit is one in which many people take part together.
NAACP
Linda Brown is now married and known as Linda Brown Thompson. She and her sister, Cheryl Brown Henderson, give talks at colleges and other locations. They share their civil rights experiences before, during, and after the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case. They want others to know how important the case was. The sisters are able to put a personal touch on the historical case. Their work is also carried out through the Brown Foundation for Educational Equality, Excellence, and Research. They hope to motivate people to work toward making life better for others.
Jack Kerouac
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Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since January 2007.Jack Kerouac
Born: March 12, 1922
Lowell, Massachusetts
Died: October 21, 1969
St. Petersburg, Florida
Occupation: Novelist
Poet
Nationality: United States
Genres: Beat Poets
Literary movement: Beat
Influences: Thomas Wolfe
Fyodor Dostoevsky
Marcel Proust
Jack London
James Joyce
Influenced: Tom Robbins
Richard Brautigan
Hunter S. Thompson
Ken Kesey
Tom Waits
Thomas Pynchon
Jim Morrison
Bob Dylan
Tom Wolfe
Jack Kerouac (pronounced [dʒæk ˈkɛɹəwæk]) (March 12, 1922 – October 21, 1969) was an American novelist, writer, poet, and artist. He is perhaps the best known of a group of writers and friends who came to be known as the Beat Generation.
Kerouac enjoyed some degree of popular appeal but little critical acclaim during his lifetime. He is now, however, considered to be one of America's most important and influential authors. His spontaneous, confessional prose style has inspired numerous other writers and musicians, including Tom Robbins, Lester Bangs, Richard Brautigan, Hunter S. Thompson, Ken Kesey, Tom Waits and Bob Dylan. Kerouac's best known works are On the Road, The Dharma Bums, Big Sur and Visions of Cody.
Kerouac divided most of his young adult life between roaming the vast American landscape and life at home with his mother. Faced with a changing post-war America, he sought to find his place, but came to eventually reject the values and social norms of the Fifties. His writing often reflects a desire to break free from society's structures and to find higher meaning.
This search led Kerouac to experiment with drugs and to embark on trips around the world. His writings are often credited as a catalyst for the 1960s counterculture. Kerouac died in St. Petersburg, Florida, at the age of forty-seven from an internal hemorrhage, the result of chronic alcoholism.
Contents [hide]
1 Life
2 Career
3 Style
4 Trivia
5 Influence
6 Bibliography
6.1 Prose
6.2 Poetry, letters, audio recordings and other writings
7 Film
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Further reading
11 External links
[edit] Life
Jack Kerouac was born Jean-Louis Lebris de Kerouac, in Lowell, Massachusetts, to a family of French-Canadians. His parents, Leo-Alcide Kerouac and Gabrielle-Ange Lévesque, were natives of the province of Québec in Canada. Like many other Québécois of their generation, the Lévesques and Kerouacs were part of the Quebec emigration to New England to find employment.
Kerouac did not start to learn English until the age of six and at home, he and his family spoke Quebec French. At an early age, he was profoundly affected by the death of his elder brother Gérard, an event that later prompted him to write his novel Visions of Gerard. Kerouac wrote some poems in French, and in letters written to friend Allen Ginsberg towards the end of his life, he expressed his desire to speak his mother tongue again.
Kerouac's athletic prowess led him to become a star on his local high school football team, and this achievement earned him scholarships to Boston College and Columbia University. He entered Columbia University after spending the scholarship's required year at Horace Mann School. Kerouac broke a leg playing football during his freshman year, and argued constantly with his coach, who kept him benched. While at Columbia, he wrote several sports articles for the student newspaper, the Columbia Daily Spectator.
During Kerouac's time at Columbia University, William Burroughs and Kerouac got into trouble with the law for failing to report a murder committed by a friend, Lucien Carr; this incident formed the basis of a mystery novel the two collaborated on in 1945 entitled And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks (the novel was never published, although an excerpt from the manuscript would be included in the Burroughs compilation Word Virus).
Jack Kerouac lived above this flower shop in Ozone Park.
Jerry Yulsman's photograph of Kerouac and Joyce Johnson outside the Kettle of Fish Bar in Greenwich Village during the 1950s.His football scholarship did not pan out and he went to live with an old girlfriend, Edie Parker, in New York. It was in New York that Kerouac met the people with whom he was to journey around the world, the subjects of many of his novels: the so-called Beat Generation, including Allen Ginsberg, Neal Cassady, John Clellon Holmes, Herbert Huncke, and William S. Burroughs. Kerouac joined the United States Merchant Marine in 1942 and in 1943 joined the United States Navy, but was discharged during World War II on psychiatric grounds (he was of "indifferent disposition").[1]
In between his sea voyages, Kerouac stayed in New York City with friends from Fordham University in The Bronx.[citation needed] He lived with his parents in the Ozone Park neighborhood of the New York City borough of Queens after he was discharged from the U.S. Navy in 1943. He wrote his first novel, The Town and the City, as well as his most famous work, the seminal On the Road, while living there. His friends jokingly called him "The Wizard of Ozone Park".[2]
The Town and the City was published in 1950 under the name "John Kerouac" and earned him some respect as a writer. It is heavily influenced by Kerouac's reading of Thomas Wolfe and it reflects on the generational epic formula and the contrasts of small town life VS the multi-dimensional and larger city. The book was heavily edited - some 400 pages were taken out - and it received mixed reviews.
Kerouac wrote constantly but could not find a publisher for his next novel for six years. Building upon previous drafts tentatively titled "The Beat Generation" and "Gone on the Road", Kerouac wrote what is now known as On the Road in April, 1951 (ISBN 0-312-20677-1).
Part of the Kerouac myth is that, fueled by Benzedrine and coffee, he completed the first version of the novel during a three week extended session of spontaneous confessional prose. This session produced the now famous scroll of On the Road. In fact, according to his Columbia professor and mentor Mark Van Doren, he had outlined much of the work in his journals over several years. His technique was heavily influenced by Jazz, especially Bebop, and later, Buddhism, as well as the famous Joan Anderson letter, authored by Neal Cassady.[3]
Publishers rejected the book due to its experimental writing style and its sympathetic tone towards minorities and marginalized social groups of the United States in the 1950s. In 1957, Viking Press purchased the novel, demanding major revisions.[4]
In 2007, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of On the Road's publishing,[5] an uncensored version of On the Road will be released by Viking Press, containing text that was removed from the released version because it was deemed too explicit for 1957 audiences. It will be drawn solely from the original scroll[6] and the only things not included will be things that Kerouac himself crossed out.
The book was largely autobiographical, narrated from the point of view of the character Sal Paradise, describing Kerouac's roadtrip adventures across the United States and Mexico with Neal Cassady, the model for the character of Dean Moriarty. Kerouac's novel is often described as the defining work of the post-World War II Beat Generation and Kerouac came to be called "the king of the beat generation," a term that he never felt comfortable with, and once observed, I'm not a beatnik, I'm a Catholic.[7] Kerouac's friendship with Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and Gregory Corso, among others, defined a generation. Kerouac also wrote and narrated a "Beat" movie entitled Pull My Daisy in 1958. In 1954, Kerouac discovered Dwight Goddard's A Buddhist Bible at the San Jose Library, which marked the beginning of Kerouac's immersion into Buddhism.
He chronicled parts of this, as well as some of his adventures with Gary Snyder and other San Francisco-area poets, in the book The Dharma Bums, set in California and published in 1958. The Dharma Bums, which some have called the sequel to On the Road, was written in Orlando, Florida during late 1957 through early 1958.
Kerouac developed something of a friendship with the scholar Alan Watts (cryptically named Arthur Wayne in Kerouac's novel Big Sur, and Alex Aums in Desolation Angels). He also met and had discussions with the famous Japanese Zen Buddhist authority D.T. Suzuki.
Jack Kerouac House, College Park section of Orlando, Florida.In July 1957, Kerouac moved to a small house on Clouser Ave. in the College Park section of Orlando, Florida to await the release of On the Road. A few weeks later, the review appears in the New York Times proclaiming Kerouac the voice of a new generation. Kerouac was hailed as a major American writer, and reluctantly as the voice of the Beat Generation. His fame would come as an unmanageable surge that would ultimately be his undoing.
John Antonelli's 1985 documentary Kerouac, the Movie begins and ends with footage of Kerouac reading from On the Road and "Visions of Cody" from The Tonight Show with Steve Allen in 1957. Kerouac appears intelligent but shy. "Are you nervous?" asks Steve Allen. "Naw", says Kerouac, sweating and fiddling.
In 1955 Kerouac wrote a biography of Siddhartha Gautama, entitled Wake Up, which was unpublished during his lifetime but eventually serialised in Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 1993-95. Shortly before his death Kerouac told interviewer Joseph Lelyveld of the New York Times, "I'm not a beatnik. I'm a Catholic." After pointing to a painting of Pope Paul VI, Kerouac noted, "You know who painted that? Me."[8]
He died on October 21, 1969 at St. Anthony's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida, one day after being rushed, in severe abdominal pain, from his St. Petersburg home by ambulance. His death, at the age of 47, resulted from an internal hemorrhage (bleeding esophageal varices) caused by cirrhosis of the liver, the result of a life of heavy drinking. He was living at the time with his third wife Stella, and his mother Gabrielle. He is buried in his home town of Lowell.
[edit] Career
Kerouac realized he wanted to be a writer before the age of ten; his father was a linotypist and ran a print shop, publishing The Lowell Spotlight.[citation needed] He tended to write constantly, carrying a notebook with him everywhere. Letters to friends and family members tended to be long and rambling, including great detail about his daily life and thoughts.
Prior to becoming a writer, he tried a varied list of careers. He was a sports reporter for The Lowell Sun; a temporary worker in construction and food service; a United States Merchant Marine and he joined the United States Navy twice. Throughout all of this he led a nomadic lifestyle, never having a home of his own.[citation needed] Alternatively, he lived with his mother, stayed with friends or camped out.
[edit] Style
Kerouac is considered by some as the King of the Beats as well as the Father of the Hippies, although it must be said that he actively disliked such labels, and, in particular, regarded the Hippie movement with some disdain. Kerouac's method was heavily influenced by the prolific explosion of Jazz, especially the Bebop genre established by Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk, and others. Later, Kerouac would include ideas he developed in his Buddhist studies, beginning with Gary Snyder. He called this style Spontaneous Prose, a literary technique akin to stream of consciousness.
Kerouac's motto was "first-thought=best thought", and many of his books exemplified this approach including On the Road, Visions of Cody, Visions of Gerard, Big Sur, and The Subterraneans. The central features of this writing method was the idea of breath (borrowed from Jazz and from Buddhist meditation breathing), improvising words over the inherent structures of mind and language, and not editing a single word (much of his work was edited by Donald Merriam Allen, a major figure in Beat Generation poetry who also edited some of Ginsberg's work as well). Connected with his idea of breath was the elimination of the period, preferring to use a long, connecting dash instead. As such, the phrases occurring between dashes might resemble improvisational jazz licks. When spoken, the words might take on a certain kind of rhythm, though none of it pre-meditated.
Gary Snyder was greatly admired by Kerouac, and many of his ideas influenced Kerouac. The Dharma Bums contains accounts of a mountain climbing trip Kerouac took with Snyder. Kerouac took a job as a fire lookout in the North Cascade Mountains (Washington State) one summer on Snyder's recommendation, which was a difficult but ultimately rewarding experience. Kerouac described the experience in his novel Desolation Angels.
He would go on for hours to friends and strangers about his method, often drunk, which at first wasn't well received by Ginsberg. He had an acute awareness of the need to sell literature (to publishers) as much as write it, though Ginsberg would later be one of its great proponents, and indeed was apparently influenced by Kerouac's free flowing prose method of writing in the composition of his masterpiece "Howl". It was at about the time that Kerouac wrote The Subterraneans that he was approached by Ginsberg and others to formally explicate exactly how he wrote it, how he did Spontaneous Prose. Among the writings he set down specifically about his Spontaneous Prose method, the most concise would be Belief and Technique for Modern Prose, a list of thirty "essentials."
Scribbled secret notebooks, and wild typewritten pages, for yr own joy
Submissive to everything, open, listening
Try never get drunk outside your own house
Be in love with your life
Something that you feel will find its own form
Be crazy dumbsaint of the mind
Blow as deep as you want to blow
Write what you want bottomless from bottom of the mind
The unspeakable visions of the individual
No time for poetry but exactly what is
Visionary tics shivering in the chest
In tranced fixation dreaming upon object before you
Remove literary, grammatical and syntactical inhibition
Like Proust be an old teahead of time
Telling the true story of the world in interior monolog
The jewel center of interest is the eye within the eye
Write in recollection and amazement for yrself
Work from pithy middle eye out, swimming in language sea
Accept loss forever
Believe in the holy contour of life
Struggle to sketch the flow that already exists intact in mind
Don't think of words when you stop but to see picture better
Keep track of every day the date emblazoned in yr morning
No fear or shame in the dignity of yr experience, language & knowledge
Write for the world to read and see yr exact pictures of it
Bookmovie is the movie in words, the visual American form
In praise of Character in the Bleak inhuman Loneliness
Composing wild, undisciplined, pure, coming in from under, crazier the better
You're a Genius all the time
Writer-Director of Earthly movies Sponsored & Angeled in Heaven
"The only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved, desirous of everything at the same time, the ones who never yawn or say a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn, like fabulous yellow Roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars."
—from On the Road, which demonstrates Kerouac's use of imagery in a beat style.
Some believed that at times Kerouac's writing technique did not produce lively or energetic prose. Truman Capote famously said about Kerouac's work, "That's not writing, it's typing." Despite such criticism, it should be kept in mind that what Kerouac said about writing and how he wrote are sometimes seen to be separate. According to Carolyn Cassady and other people who knew him he rewrote and rewrote. Some claim his own style was in no way spontaneous. However it should be taken into account that throughout most of the '50s, Kerouac was constantly trying to have his work published, and consequently he often revised and re-arranged manuscripts in an often futile attempt to interest publishers, as is clearly documented in his collected letters (which are in themselves wonderful examples of his style). The Subterraneans and Visions of Cody are possibly the best examples of Kerouac's free-flowing spontaneous prose method of writing.
[edit] Trivia
Kerouac was an avid athlete; he was a high school football star and earned a scholarship to play football at Columbia University in New York, and was known to be a fan of boxing.
Kerouac mentions his best friends George Apostolos and Sebastian Sampas, killed during World War II, on numerous occasions throughout his writings.[9]
Kerouac's boyhood friends George Apostolos and Sammy Sampas were the uncle and cousin, respectively, of Ted Leonsis the prominent businessman.[10]
Legendarily, On the Road was written in just three weeks, on one continuous roll of teletype paper. (In fact, this is true with qualifications only; see discussion at On the Road.)
At the time of his death in 1969, Kerouac's estate was worth little more than ninety-one dollars, but by 2004 had grown to an estimated $20 million.
Kerouac did not learn to drive until 1956 (at age 34) and he never had a driver's license.
In a scene from Bob Dylan's 1978 film Renaldo and Clara, Dylan and poet Allen Ginsburg are seen at Kerouac's grave.
The alley that separates the City Lights Bookstore and Vesuvio Saloon on Columbus Avenue in San Francisco's North Beach neighborhood is officially named by the city as Jack Kerouac Alley. The alley is famous for being a meeting ground for many luminaires of the Beat Generation, including Kerouac who often drank at Vesuvio.
Kerouac was related to botanist Brother Marie Victorin (born Conrad Kirouac) from his father's side, while his mother was second cousin with Quebec Premier René Lévesque.
Kerouac invented his own fantasy baseball league when he was a child. He continued playing this game well into adulthood.[11]
Kerouac is to be honored posthumously with a Doctor of Letters degree from his hometown's University of Massachusetts - Lowell on June 2, 2007.
Kerouac appeared as the character Gene Pasternak in Go by John Clellon Holmes.
[edit] Influence
Related article: Jack Kerouac in popular culture.
Kerouac is considered by some as the "King of the Beats" as well as the "Father of the Hippies".
Kerouac's plainspeak manner of writing prose, as well as his nearly long-form haiku style of poetry have inspired countless modern neo-beat writers and artists, such as George Condo (Painter), Roger Craton (Poet and Philosopher), and John McNaughton (filmmaker).
Brazilian poet Wagner Hertzog de Oliveira said that "Kerouac was the most beautiful, sensitive and meaningful voice of american literature post-World War II."[citation needed]
The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University is named in his honor.
[edit] Bibliography
Neal Cassady & Jack Kerouac from the cover of On the Road
[edit] Prose
Atop an Underwood: Early Stories and Other Writings (ISBN 0-670-88822-2)
Visions of Gerard (ISBN 0-14-014452-8)
Doctor Sax (ISBN 0-8021-3049-6)
The Town and the City (ISBN 0-15-690790-9)
Maggie Cassidy (ISBN 0-14-017906-2)
Vanity of Duluoz (ISBN 0-14-023639-2)
On the Road (ISBN 0-14-004259-8)
Visions of Cody (ISBN 0-14-017907-0)
The Subterraneans (ISBN 0-8021-3186-7)
Tristessa (ISBN 0-14-016811-7)
The Dharma Bums (ISBN 0-14-004252-0)
Lonesome Traveler (ISBN 0-8021-3074-7)
Desolation Angels (ISBN 1-57322-505-3)
Big Sur (ISBN 0-14-016812-5)
Satori in Paris (ISBN 0-394-17437-2, out of print; currently available in ISBN 0-8021-3061-5)
Pic (ISBN 0-7043-1122-4, out of print; currently available in ISBN 0-8021-3061-5)
Old Angel Midnight (ISBN 0-912516-97-6)
Book of Dreams (ISBN 0-87286-027-2)
Good Blonde & Others (ISBN 0-912516-22-4)
Orpheus Emerged (ISBN 0-7434-7514-3)
Book of Sketches (ISBN 0-14-200215-1)
And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks (unpublished work; with William S. Burroughs)
[edit] Poetry, letters, audio recordings and other writings
Mexico City Blues
Scattered Poems
Heaven and Other Poems
Trip Trap: Haiku on the Road from SF to NY (with Albert Saijo and Lew Welch)
Pomes All Sizes
San Francisco Blues
Book of Blues
Book of Haikus
Dear Carolyn: Letters to Carolyn Cassady (1983) (1000 copies Edited By Arthur and Kit Knight) ISBN 0-934660-06-9
The Scripture of the Golden Eternity (meditations, koans, poems) ISBN 0-87286-291-7
Wake Up
Some of the Dharma
Beat Generation (a play written in 1957 but not found or published until 2005)[1]
Jack Kerouac: Selected Letters, 1940-1956
Jack Kerouac: Selected Letters, 1957-1969
Windblown World: The Journals of Jack Kerouac
Safe In Heaven Dead (Interview fragments)
Conversations with Jack Kerouac (Interviews)
Empty Phantoms (Interviews)
Departed Angels: The Lost Paintings
Readings by Jack Kerouac on the Beat Generation (1959) (LP)
Poetry For The Beat Generation (1959) (LP)
Blues And Haikus (1960) (LP)
The Jack Kerouac Collection (1990) [Box] (Audio CD Collection of 3 LPs)
The Jack Kerouac Romnibus(1995) (a multimedia CD-ROM project coupled with a book) (Ralph Lombreglia and Kate Bernhardt)
Reads on the Road (1999) (Audio CD)
Doctor Sax & Great World Snake (2003) (Play Adaptation with Audio CD)
Door Wide Open (2000) (by Joyce Johnson. Includes letters from Jack Kerouac)
Uhn Tiss, Uhn Tiss, Uhn Tiss
[edit] Film
What Happened to Kerouac? [2]
[edit] See also
Beat generation
Beatnik
Neal Cassady
References in On the Road
[edit] Notes
^ http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0906052_jack_kerouac_1.html
^ http://www.wordsareimportant.com/ozonepark.htm
^ http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Workshop/5083/letter3.html
^ http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC
^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14045410
^ http://www.npr.org/programs/atc/features/2005/feb/kerouac/scroll.html
^ http://web.archive.org/web/20050206191742/www.jackkerouac.com/about/quotes.htm
^ http://partners.nytimes.com/books/97/09/07/home/kerouac-obit.html
^ http://www.uunashua.org/sermons/todiefor.shtml
^ http://www.cwhonors.org/archives/histories/Leonsis.pdf
^ http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/article.cfm?archiveDate=08-24-01&storyID=6463
[edit] Further reading
Amburm, Ellis. "Subterranean Kerouac: The Hidden Life of Jack Kerouac". St. Martin's Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-20677-1
Amram, David. "Offbeat: Collaborating with Kerouac". Thunder's Mouth Press, 2002.ISBN 1-56025-362-2
Bartlett, Lee (ed.) "The Beats: Essays in Criticism". London: McFarland, 1981.
Beaulieu, Victor-Lévy. "Jack Kerouac: A Chicken Essay". Coach House Press, 1975.
Brooks, Ken. "The Jack Kerouac Digest". Agenda, 2001.
Cassady, Carolyn. "Neal Cassady Collected Letters, 1944-1967". Penguin, 2004. ISBN 0-14-200217-8
Cassady, Carolyn. "Off the Road: Twenty Years with Cassady, Kerouac
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Silent Generation
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The name Silent Generation was coined in the November 5, 1951 cover story of Time to refer to the generation within the United States coming of age at the time. The phrase gained further currency after William Manchester's comment that the members of this generation were "withdrawn, cautious, unimaginative, indifferent, unadventurous and silent." The name was used by Strauss and Howe in their book Generations as their designation for that generation in the United States of America born from 1925 to 1942. The generation is also known as the Postwar Generation and the Seekers, when it is not neglected altogether and placed by marketers in the same category as the G.I., or "Greatest", Generation. In England they were named the Air Raid Generation as children growing up amidst the crossfire of World War II.
According to Strauss and Howe's interpretation, the typical grandparents were of the Missionary Generation; their parents were of the Lost Generation and G.I. Generation. Their children are Baby Boomers and Generation X (a.k.a. 13th Generation) - or sometimes labeled as Generation Jones. Their typical grandchildren are of the Generation Y (a.k.a. Millennials.)
The Silent Generation was caught between the get-it-done G.I.s and the vocal "world-changing" Boomers. Well into their rising adulthood, they looked to the G.I.s for role models and pursued what then looked to be a lifetime of refining, humanizing, and ameliorating a G.I.-built world. Come the mid-1960s, the Silent fell under the trance of their free-spirited next-juniors, the Boomers. As songwriters, graduate students, and young attorneys, they mentored the Consciousness Revolution, founding several of the organizations of political dissent the Boom would later radicalize.
The Silent grew up as the suffocated children of war and depression. They came of age too late to be war heroes (they fought the Korean War to a tie) and just too early to be youthful free spirits. Instead, this early-marrying Lonely Crowd became the risk-averse technicians, sensitive rock-n-rollers ("Why must I be a teenager in love?") brooding Method actors and civil rights advocates of a post-Crisis era in which conformity seemed a sure ticket to success. Subsequently, Midlife was an anxious "passage" for a generation torn between stolid elders and passionate juniors. Content not to make waves, compliant to high defense spending policies during peacetime, their surge to power coincided with fragmenting families, cultural diversity, institutional complexity, and prolific litigation. In 2003, they are entering elderhood with unprecedented affluence, a hip style, and a reputation for indecision. Thus far, they are the only generation from which no president of the United States was ever selected.
David Foot in Boom Bust and Echo takes a very different perspective on this group arguing that those born in the 1930s and early 1940s are the most successful generation. He argues that because so few people were born during the depression and the war that employment opportunities were abundant and this group quickly rose to the top and became the management and superiors of the great mass of baby boomers that came after them. Using economic indicators he finds that 1938 was the best year to be born in North America, in terms of economic success. The impact of the generation was also great culturally, as the musicians and thinkers such as Paul McCartney, John Lennon and Bob Dylan who shaped the fashions of the boomers and were often associated with the pop culture of the 1960s and 1970s.
[edit] Silent celebrities
U.S. Generations
* = dates disputed, ^ = Strauss and Howe
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Term Period
^Puritan Generation
1588–1617
Puritan Awakening 1621–1649
^Cavalier Generation
^Glorious Generation
^Enlightenment Generation
^Awakening Generation 1618-1648
1648-1673
1674-1700
1701–1723
First Great Awakening 1727–1746
^Liberty Generation
^Republican Generation
^Compromise Generation 1724–1741
1742–1766
1767–1791
Second Great Awakening 1790–1844
Transcendentalist Generation
^Transcendental Generation
^Gilded Generation
^Progressive Generation 1789–1819
1792–1821
1822–1842
1843–1859
Third Great Awakening 1886–1908
^Missionary Generation
Lost Generation
Interbellum Generation
G.I. Generation
Greatest Generation 1860–1882
1883–1900
1900–1910
1900–1924
1911–1924
Jazz Age 1918-1929
^Silent Generation
Beat Generation
Baby Boomers
Generation Jones 1925–1942
fl. 1950s-1960s
*1940s-1960s
1954–1965
Consciousness Revolution 1964–1984
Generation X
^13th Generation
MTV Generation
Boomerang Generation *1960s–1980s
1961-1981
1974–1985
1977–1986
Generation Y
^Millennial Generation
Echo Boom Generation
Internet Generation
^New Silent Generation *1970s–1990s
1982-2000
*1982–1995
*1994–2001
*1990s or 2000s-?
1925 Gore Vidal
1925 Johnny Carson (died 2005)
1925 Sammy Davis Jr (died 1990)
1925 William F. Buckley, Jr.
1925 B.B. King
1925 Paul Newman
1926 Miles Davis (died 1991)
1926 Harper Lee
1926 Allen Ginsberg (died 1997)
1926 Andy Griffith
1926 Chuck Berry
1926 Marilyn Monroe (died 1962)
1926 John Coltrane (died 1967)
1926 Pete Rozelle (died 1996)
1927 César Chávez (died 1993)
1927 Andy Warhol (died 1987)
1928 Noam Chomsky
1928 T. Boone Pickens, Jr.
1928 Gordie Howe (immigrant)
1929 Martin Luther King, Jr. (died 1968)
1930 Ornette Coleman
1930 Steve McQueen (died 1980)
1930 Sandra Day O'Connor
1930 Clint Eastwood
1930 Neil Armstrong
1930 James A. Baker III
1930 Ray Charles (died 2004)
1931 James Dean (died 1955)
1931 James Earl Jones
1931 Mickey Mantle (died 1995)
1931 Willie Mays
1932 Johnny Cash (died 2003)
1932 Little Richard
1932 Andrew Young
1932 Elizabeth Taylor
1932 Patsy Cline (died 1963)
1932 Dave Thomas (died 2002)
1933 Stanley Milgram (died 1984)
1933 Elizabeth Montgomery (died 1995)
1934 Hank Aaron
1934 Wilford Brimley
1934 Bill Russell
1934 Carl Sagan (died 1996)
1935 Elvis Presley (died 1977)
1935 Geraldine Ferraro
1935 Ken Kesey (died 2001)
1935 Jack Welch
1935 Jack Kemp
1935 Jerry Lee Lewis
1935 Woody Allen
1935 Phil Donahue
1936 Jim Brown
1936 Albert Ayler (died 1970)
1936 Wilt Chamberlain (died 1999)
1936 Jim Henson (died 1990)
1936 Abbie Hoffman (died 1989)
1936 John McCain
1936 Mary Tyler Moore
1937 George Carlin
1937 Jane Fonda
1937 Dustin Hoffman
1937 Jack Nicholson
1937 Thomas Pynchon
1937 Hunter S. Thompson (died 2005)
1938 Peter Jennings (immigrant) (died 2005)
1938 Natalie Wood (died 1981)
1939 Marvin Gaye (died 1984)
1939 Grace Slick
1940 Tom Brokaw
1940 Joseph Brodsky (immigrant) (died 1996)
1940 Ted Koppel (immigrant)
1940 Patricia Schroeder
1940 John Lennon (immigrant) (died 1980)
1940 Richard Pryor (died 2005)
1941 Joan Baez
1941 Dick Cheney
1941 Bob Dylan
1941 Pete Rose
1941 Martha Stewart
1941 Paul Simon (musician)
1942 Muhammad Ali
1942 Joseph Lieberman
1942 Aretha Franklin
1942 Theodore Kaczynski
1942 Barbra Streisand
1942 Jimi Hendrix (died 1970)
1942 Jerry Garcia (died 1995)
[edit] Cultural endowments
Howl (Allen Ginsberg)
Playboy (magazine, Hugh Hefner, first centerfold was Marilyn Monroe)
The Other America (Michael Harrington)
Portnoy's Complaint (Philip Roth)
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (Ken Kesey, later a movie starring Jack Nicholson)
Unsafe at Any Speed (Ralph Nader)
On Death and Dying (Elisabeth Kübler-Ross)
Cosmos: A Personal Voyage (TV series, Carl Sagan)
Heartburn (Nora Ephron)
Ms. (magazine, Gloria Steinem)
Future Shock (Alvin Toffler)
Megatrends (John Naisbitt)
Fatherhood (Bill Cosby)
Sesame Street (children's television, Joan Ganz Cooney)
Sea Change: A Message of the Oceans (Sylvia Earle)
The Silent generation has produced America's late 20th century and early 21st century facilitators and technocrats. They produced four decades of Presidential aides:
Pierre Salinger (for John Fitzgerald Kennedy)
Bill Moyers (for Lyndon Baines Johnson)
John Ehrlichman (for Richard Milhous Nixon)
Richard Cheney (for Gerald Rudolph Ford, George Herbert Walker Bush, and George Walker Bush)
Stuart Eizenstat (for James Earl Carter)
James Addison Baker III (for Ronald Wilson Reagan and George Herbert Walker Bush)
John Henry Sununu (for George Herbert Walker Bush)
And three First Ladies:
Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy
Eleanor Rosalynn Smith Carter
Barbara Pierce Bush
But no Presidents.
They achieved a majority on the United States Supreme Court in 1993 with the appointment of Ruth Bader Ginsburg.
[edit] Foreign Peers
Pol Pot (1925-1998)
Mahathir bin Mohamad (1925-)
Yukio Mishima (1925-1970)
Margaret Thatcher (1925-)
Jiang Zemin (1926-)
Elizabeth II (1926-)
Fidel Castro (1926-)
Dame Joan Sutherland (1926-)
Pope Benedict XVI (1927-)
Ariel Sharon (1928-)
Einojuhani Rautavaara (1928-)
Zbigniew Brzezinski (1928-)
Anne Frank (1929-1945)
Tigran Petrosian (1929-1984)
Yasser Arafat (1929-2004)
Audrey Hepburn (1929-1993)
Milan Kundera (1929-)
Bob Hawke (1929-)
Helmut Kohl (1930-)
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)
Sean Connery (1930-)
Harold Pinter (1930-)
Rupert Murdoch (1931-)
Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-)
Archbishop Desmond Tutu (1931-)
Boris Yeltsin (1931-2007)
Umberto Eco (1932-)
Elizabeth Taylor (1932-)
Jacques Chirac (1932-)
Dalida (1933-1987)
Amartya Sen (1933-)
Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968)
Brigitte Bardot (1934-)
Julie Andrews (1935-)
Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama (1935-)
Arvo Pärt (1935-)
Luciano Pavarotti (1935-)
Garfield Sobers (1936-)
Václav Havel (1936-)
Frederik Willem de Klerk (1936-)
Mikhail Tal (1936-1992)
Saddam Hussein (1937-2006)
Kerry Packer (1937-2005)
Rudolf Nureyev (1938-1993)
Kofi Annan (1938-)
Germaine Greer (1939-)
John Howard (1939-)
Ringo Starr (1940-)
Cliff Richard (1940-)
John Lennon (1940-1980)
Pelé (1940-)
Kim Jong-il (1941-)
Slobodan Milošević (1941-2006)
Hayao Miyazaki (1941-)
Ehud Barak (1942-)
Paul McCartney (1942-)
Preceded by
G.I. Generation
1901 – 1924
(Strauss & Howe)
Silent Generation
1925 – 1942
(Strauss & Howe)
Succeeded by
Baby Boomers
1943 – 1960
(Strauss & Howe)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Generation"
Categories: Articles lacking sources from March 2007 | All articles lacking sources | American generations
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Juvenile delinquency
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See also: Wikibooks:Social Deviance
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Juvenile delinquency refers to criminal acts performed by juveniles. It is an important social issue because juveniles are capable of committing serious crimes, but most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles.
Contents [hide]
1 Nature and causes
2 Definition and specifications
3 Theoretical Perspectives on Juvenile Delinquency and Crime
3.1 Robert Merton
4 Ongoing debate
5 Delinquency Prevention
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] Nature and causes
Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen. There is much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible for his or her actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:
Abandonment
Social institutions
Peer pressure
[edit] Definition and specifications
In the United States, a juvenile delinquent is a person who has not yet reached the age of majority, and whose behavior has been labeled delinquent by a court. The specific requirements vary from state to state. In the United States, the federal government enacted legislation to unify the handling of juvenile deliquents, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Act of 1974. America has more than 1 million people in prison.[1].
The act created the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) within the Justice Department to administer grants for juvenile crime-combatting programs (currently about only 900,00 dollars a year), gather national statistics on juvenile crime, fund research on youth crime and administer four anticonfinement mandates regarding juvenile custody. Specifically, the act orders:
Deinstitutionalization: Youths charged with "status" offenses that would not be crimes if committed by adults, such as truancy, running away and being caught with alcohol or tobacco, must be "deinstitutionalized," which in this case really means that, with certain exceptions (e.g., minor in possession of a handgun), status offenders may not be detained by police or confined. Alleged problems with this mandate are that it overrides state and local law[1], limits the discretion of law enforcement officers and prevents the authorities' ability to reunify an offender with his family[1].
Segregation: Arrested youths must be strictly segregated from adults in custody. Under this "out of sight and sound" mandate, juveniles cannot be served food by anyone who serves jailed adults nor can a juvenile walk down a corridor past a room where an adult is being interrogated. This requirement forces local authorities to either free juveniles or maintain expensive duplicate facilities and personnel[1]. Small cities, towns and rural areas are especially hard hit, drastically raising those taxpayers' criminal justice costs.
Jail and Lockup Removal: As a general rule, youths subject to the original jurisdiction of juvenile courts cannot be held in jails and lockups in which adults may be detained. The act provides for a six-hour exception for identification, processing, interrogation and transfer to juvenile facilities, court or detention pending release to parents. The act also provides an exception of 24 hours for rural areas only[1].
Overrepresentation of minority youths: States must systematically try to reduce confinement of minority youths to the proportion of those groups in the population.
[edit] Theoretical Perspectives on Juvenile Delinquency and Crime
[edit] Robert Merton
Merton believes that there is a serious relationship between poverty and crime. He feels that there are institutionalized paths to happiness in our society. He believes in a society of equilibrium where goals = means. A society of disequilibrium would be adaptation. Merton's Strain Theory suggests five attributes.
Innovation: individuals who accept socially approved goals, but not necessarily the socially approved means.
Retreatism: those who reject socially approved goals and the means for acquiring them.
Ritualism: those who buy into a system of socially approved means, but lose sight of the goals. Merton believed that drug users are in this category.
Conformity: those who conform to the system's means and goals.
Rebellion: people who negate socially approved goals and means by creating a new system of acceptable goals and means.
[edit] Ongoing debate
One of the most notable causes of juvenile delinquency is fiat, i.e. the declaration that a juvenile is delinquent by the juvenile court system without any trial, and upon finding only probable cause. Many states have laws that presuppose the less harsh treatment of juvenile delinquents than adult counterparts’ treatment. In return, the juvenile surrenders certain constitutional rights, such as a right to trial by jury, the right to cross-examine, and even the right to a speedy trial. Notable writings by reformers such as Jerome G. Miller[2] show that very few juvenile delinquents actually broke any law. Most were simply rounded up by the police after some event that possibly involved criminal action. They were brought before juvenile court judges who made findings of delinquency, simply because the police action established probable cause. h
[edit] Delinquency Prevention
Delinquency Prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved in criminal, or other antisocial, activity. Increasingly, local, state, and federal governments are recognizing the importance of allocating resources for the prevention of delinquency. Websites such as the 'DelinquencyPrevention.Org'[3] are working toward unifying delinquency prevention efforts. Because it is often difficult for states to provide the fiscal resources necessary for good prevention, organizations, communities, and governments are working more in collaboration with each other to prevent juvenile delinquency.
Because the development of delinquent behavior in youth is influenced by numerous factors, so should prevention efforts be comprehensive in scope. Prevention services include activities such as substance abuse education and treatment; family counseling; youth mentoring; parenting education; educational support; and youth sheltering. Organizations such as the Prevent Delinquency Project *[1] concentrate their efforts on teaching parents the importance of parental supervision and guidance, and assist them in learning to identify the various threats that exist to children. Armed with this knowledge, parents are in a better position to intervene at the earliest signs of trouble, before their children wind up in the juvenile justice system. Although those who provide prevention services are often well educated, well trained, and dedicated, they are frequently underpaid, and under recognized for their work. Agencies that provide prevention services typically run on "shoe string budgets" and appreciate any financial help they can get from individuals, social organizations, and governments.
[edit] References
^ a b c d e The Long Arm of Federal Juvenile Crime Law Shortened. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
^ Miller, Jerome G. (1991). Last One Over the Wall. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0-8142-0758-8.
^ Delinquency Prevention and Youth Development. Retrieved on 2006-12-12.
[edit] Bibliography
E. Mulvey, MW Arthur, ND Reppucci, "The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency: A review of the research", Clinical Psychology Review, 1993.
Edward P. Mulvey, Michael W. Arthur, & N. Dickon Reppucci, "Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency: A Review of the Research", The Prevention Researcher, Volume 4, Number 2, 1997, Pages 1-4.
Regoli, Robert M. and Hewitt, John D. "Delinquency in Society", 6th ed., 2006.
Siegel, J Larry. "Juvenile Delinquency with Infotrac: theory, practices and law", 2002.
United Nations, Research Report on Juvenile Delinquency. [2]
Zigler E, Taussig C, Black K., "Early childhood intervention. A promising preventative for juvenile delinquency", Am Psychol. 1992 Aug;47(8):997-1006.
Gang Cop: The Words and Ways of Officer Paco Domingo (2004) by Malcolm W.Klein
The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control (1995), by Malcolm W. Klein
Street Gang Patterns & Policies (2006) by Malcolm Klein and Cheryl Maxson
American Youth Violence (1998) by Franklin Zimring
Street Wars: Gangs and the Future of Violence (2004) by Tom Hayden
Fist, Stick, Knife, Gun 1995() by Geoffrey Canada
Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic (1996) by James Gilligan
Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn Violent and How We Can Save Them (1999) by James Gabarino
Last Chance in Texas: The Redemption of Criminal Youth (2005) by John Hubner
Breaking Rank: A Top Cop’s Expose of the Dark Side of American Policing (2005) by Norm Stamper
[edit] See also
Teen courts
Crime
Youth court
Hooliganism
Parenting
Separatism
Youth rights
Revolution
Youth activism
Rebellion
Civic engagement
[edit] External links
Delinquency Prevention & Youth Development Resources for families, providers, and community leaders.
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
Youth at the United Nations
CJCJ.org The Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice
The National Evaluation and Technical Assistance Center for the Education of Children and Youth Who Are Neglected, Delinquent, or At-Risk
The Juvenile Justice Role Model Development Program - Florida State University
www.PreventDelinquency.org Home of the Prevent Delinquency Project
www.JuvenileCrime.org Juvenile crime news
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency"
Categories: Childhood | Criminology | Juvenile law
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Do also observe the case of zero frequency difference. You would see that the waves have the same phase difference at all times giving rise to resultant oscillations of constant amplitude- either zero or twice the amplitude of one of the waves depending on whether phase difference is PI or zero .
Surendranath Reddy. B.